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MaApP OF THE ISLAND OF PorTo RIco. 


EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO 


By 


JOHN JOSEPH OSUNA, PH.D. 


TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 
CONTRIBUTIONS TO EDUCATION, NO. 133 


Published by 
Weachers College, Columbia Cniversitp 
New York City 
1923 


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PREFACE 


His account of Education m Porto Rico was suggested by 
Dr. Isaac L. Kandel, of Teachers College, Columbia Univer- 
sity, who pointed out the fact that this was a new problem in Ameri- 
can Education. Porto Rico is a part of the United States and inall 
probability she will remain permanently American territory. To- 
day her citizens are citizens of the United States. Her problems, 
educational or otherwise, are closely linked with those of the Ameri- 
can commonwealth. The Island has to-day an American school 
system with four hundred years of Spanish background. These 
circumstances make of Porto Rico a new problem in American edu- 
cation. 

In order to appreciate better the institutions of the Spanish régime, 
the author spent a part of a year’s residence in Spain, the mother 
country, studying her institutions and especially the system of public 
instruction, including the elementary schools, the institutes, the uni- 
versities, together with the new movements for educational reform. 
This also gave the author, himself a native Porto Rican of Spanish 
descent, an opportunity to observe the psychology of the Spanish 
people and the customs and peculiarities of the different regions. 

The authority for whatever may be found in this dissertation was 
derived from the literature on the subject and from first-hand informa- 
tion of the schools both in Spain and in Porto Rico, as well as from 
interviews with educators of both countries. For the legal basis 
ecnstant reference was made to Documentos para la Historia Escolar 
de Espana, by Lorenzo Luzuriaga; the many volumes of El Anuario 
Legislativo de Instruccién Publica, and the other educational docu- 
ments, laws, and regulations collected in El Museo Pedagégico, Madrid; 
Compilacion Legislatwa de Primera Enseranza de la Isla de Puerto 
Rico y Formularios para toda clase de servicios relacionados con la 
Instruccién Primaria, by Juan Macho Moreno; the several editions 
and compilations of the school laws of Porto Rico since the American 
occupation, and the reports of the Governors and Commissioners of 
Education for Porto Rico. 

By the courteous generosity of Dr. Stephen Pierce Duggan, Direc- 
tor of The Institute of International Education, New York, the auth- 
or was introduced to Doctor José Castillejo, Secretary of La Junta 


vt Preface 


para Ampliacién de Estudios e Investigaciones Cientificas, who in 
turn introduced him to Doctor Manuel Bartolomé Cossio, Director of 
El Museo Pedagégico and La Institucién Libre de Ensefianza. The 
latter introduced him to leading educators all over the Peninsula. 
If everybody to whom the author is under obligation were named, 
the list would be too long; but special mention should be made in 
this brief preface to the kindness of Doctor Cossio and Doctor 
Castillejo and their associates; to the officers of La Mancomunidad de 
Catalufia, and to many other prominent educators, publishers, states- 
men and men of affairs who showed all possible courtesy and kindness. 
The librarians of La Biblioteca Nacional in Madrid were most ac- 
commodating, and without their assistance it would have been im- 
possible to secure access to the rare books and documents in that 
library. 

Thanks are also due to Miss Elizabeth G. Baldwin and her associ- 
ates in the Bryson Library, Teachers College, for their interest in 
this work and their untiring efforts to secure sources from wherever 
they could be found; to the Librarian and other employees of the 
Hispanic Society of America, New York, and to the employees of the 
New York Public Library for their assistance in securing sources; 
to Dr. Paul Monroe for his interest and suggestions during the 
author’s student days at Teachers College; to Drs. Edward H. Reis- 
ner and Frederick G. Bonser, for valuable suggestions during their 
review of this dissertation, and especially to Dr. Isaac L. Kandel, 
whose broad scholarship and interest in international educational 
problems was a constant inspiration, and without whose help this work 
would have been impossible. 

This account would not be complete without expressing due thanks 
to Dr. Cayetano Coll y Toste for constant reference to his book, 
Historia de la Instruccién Piiblica en Puerto Rico; to Dr. Paul G. 
Miller, on whose reports and opinions the author has relied a great 
deal; to Mr. José Padin and Mr. Gildo Massé for painstaking hours 
spent in reading the manuscript, although they are in no way re- 
sponsible for any errors that no doubt have crept in or for any mis- 
judgments. Finally the author is indebted to his students at the 
University of Porto Rico for their fair criticism in the class room. 


J. J. OSUNA 
Rio Piedras, P.R. 
April 24, 1993. 


CONTENTS 


PART I 
SPANISH EDUCATION (1493-1898) 
I. IntrropuctTIon: GEOGRAPHY AND POPULATION OF Porto Rico......... 1 


II. Spanish BacKGRoUND AND CHURCH ContTROL or EpucaTIoNn (1493-1820) 4 


III. Epucation Unprr tHE Controu or EpucaTIona Societies (1820- 
A. Spanish Historical and Educational Background. 
B. Divided Administration under the Economic Society of the Friends 
of the Country and the Provincial Deputation (1820-1850). 
C. Administration under the Royal Academy of Belles Lettres (1851-65). 


IV. Pourricat Unrest anp ATTEMPTs TO ESTABLISH A SYSTEM OF PUBLIC 
INSTRUCTION KL OGG PSOD) rai enn ture ea nt ty ate eee) Shee Mt 46 
A. Historical Background. 
B. The Organic Decree of June 10, 1865. 
C. The Restoration and Reforms of General Sanzs. 
D. Condition of Elementary Education in 1880. 


V. Epucation UNDER THE ORGANIC DECREE oF 1880 (1880-1898)........ 67 
A. Historical Background. 
B. The Organic Decree of 1880. 
C. Condition of Elementary Education in 1898. 


VI. SrEconDARY AND PROFESSIONAL EpucaTIOoN (1820-1898).............. 93 
A. Activities of the Church. 
B. Private Initiative. 
C. Activities of the Government. 
D. Conditions of Secondary and Professional Education in 1898. 


PART II 


EDUCATION UNDER THE GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES 
OF AMERICA (1898-1920) 


VII. American OccuPATION AND THE BEGINNINGS OF SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 113 
A. Historical Background since 1898. 
B. School Organization under the Military Government. 


VIII. EpucatTionaLt ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION. ................... 124 
A. The Central Offices. 
B. Supervision. 


C. The Local Offices. 


PL MACHING LE ROBMSSION S25 chelate aerate les ine! 6 akartons Cant ea peat tench he 
A. Period of Readjustment to October 1901. 
B. Academic and Professional Preparation since 1901. 
C. Classification of Teachers. 
D. Teachers’ Salaries. 
E. Social Status of Teachers. 


X. Evementary Epucation: I. ProBiems IN ELEMENTARY EpucatTion. 175 
A. Organization of Elementary Education. 
B. Extension and Finance of Elementary Education. 


ON) 


XI. 


XII. 


XIII. 


XIV. 


VIil. 


Contents 


C. Buildings and Equipment. 
D. Co-education. 
E. Adaptation. 


Evementary Epucation: II. Toe ScHoots........ He SNe Ohh nein ane 200 
A. Rural Schools. 
B. Graded Schools. 
C. Night Schools. 
D. Private Schools. 


ELEMENTARY Epucation: II. Spectan SuBsEcTs AND AUXILIARY 
EpucaTION AGENCIES. HAA) ea Us iat 55, ho lite Sieh da eR I ea 
A. The Teaching of English. 
B. The Teaching of Manual Training. 
C. The Teaching of Home Economics. 
D. The Teaching of Agriculture. 
E. Auxiliary Educational Agencies. 


SECONDARY, HIGHER AND PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION................- 248 
A. The High Schools. 
B. The Continuation Schools. 
C. The University of Porto Rico. 


CONCLUSIONS AND PrResENT Day PROBLEMS............-.01-----+-- 262 
APPENDICES 
ScHoou Census or Porto Rico,-DECEMBER 1864................... 281 


NuMBER or ScHOOLS THAT SHOULD Have Breen ESTABLISHED IN Porto 
Rico AccORDING TO THE ORGANIC DECREE oF 1865. ............ 281 


EXAMPLES OF QUESTIONS ON THE DIFFERENT SUBJECTS OF THE CURRICU- 
LuM Us=p ror TEACHERS’ COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS FROM 1830 


TO ASOS she ose dia ig 1 UMD De Ree at Gan Aural aU eatG ner kare (ct Gur s C Ren 
Prriops or Pusiic Primary InstrucTION IN Porto Rico............ 287 
SECONDARY SCHOOL ENROLLMENT, 1883-1899...............-..2++-+ 287 


D1aGRAM OF ADMINISTRATION: Pusiic ScHOOL SysTEM OF Porto Rico. 288 


TABLES:. 3 Nd Care cece eee 
di Expenditures ‘for Educational “Purposes, Years ending June 
1889 to 1920. 
II. Classified Expenditures for Educational Purposes, Years ending 
June 1899 to 1920. 
III. Expenditures Classified Per Capita Cost, Years ending June 
1899 to 1919. 
IV. Comparative Statement of inancial Operations of School 
Boards for the Years for Which Data is Available. 


ILLUSTRATIONS OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS Wy 4uii sy eee ie ae eee 


CoMPARATIVE Stupy or EpUCATIONAL CONDITIONS IN 1898-1899 AND 
1D 18-1919 ee a OE IAEA na ee TEP Re Ay No a en 


Bibliography ei). ny Ged Nia a AUG Ree ura eo ne ea 300 


EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO 


CHAPTER I 


INTRODUCTION: GEOGRAPHY AND POPULATION OF 
PORTO RICO 


Location. The Island of Porto Rico, the most easterly and the 
smallest of the Greater Antilles, lies within the tropics, between 
latitudes 17° 54 and 18° 30’ north, and longitudes 65° 35’ and 67° 
15 west. It occupies a position about midway in the chain of islands: 
connecting Florida and Venezuela, and separating the Caribbean 
Sea from the Atlantic Ocean. It is about 450 miles east and slightly 
south of Cuba; about 500 miles north of the nearest point of Vene- 
zuela; about 1,000 miles from Colon, Panama; and about 1,500 miles 
from New York and New Orleans, and a little more than twice that 
distance from Gibraltar. 

Area. The Island is rectangular in shape with its longest axis 
east and west. Together with the adjacent islands it has a total 
area, of 3,435 square miles or about 2,198,400 acres, being about one 
hundred miles long and thirty-five miles wide. Thus the territory as 
a whole is about five-sixths the size of the island of Hawaii, and four 
times as large as Long Island. 

Physiography. A range of hills and low mountains runs east and 
west somewhat south of the middle of the Island. The highest 
elevation, in the central part, due south of Jayuya, is 4,398 feet, while 
the altitude of the other peaks is from 2,000 to 3,950 feet. Northward 
and southward from the crest the land slopes very irregularly down 
to the sea. It is deeply cut by streams, the Jargest of which, Rio 
Grande de Loiza, Rio de la Plata, Bayamén, Morovis and Arecibo, 
are on the northern slope. None of them is navigable. The southern 
slope is shorter and steeper and the streams on this side are smaller. 
Approaching the sea the land is less uneven and near the coast it 
spreads into broad, level plains with excellent soil adapted to the 
cultivation of sugar cane and cocoanuts. The coast line is simple and 
there are good harbors: San Juan on the north, Mayagtez and Agua- 
dilla on the west, Gudnica, Ponce and Arroyo on the south, and Hu- 
macao and Fajardo on the east. 


(1) 


2 Education in Porto Rico 


Transportation. Transportation facilities are generally good. A 
railroad runs almost around the Island with branches to certain 
interior towns. The total railway mileage to-day is about three 
hundred miles. There is no railroad across the Island and no im- 
mediate necessity for one since excellent highways serve the interior. 
Freight is transported by auto-truck and ox-cart and most of the 
passenger traffic back from the coast is done by automobile. There is 
now in Porto Rico a_ total of 1,100 miles of good roads and more 
are constantly being built. | ; 

Climate. Porto Rico is within the path of the south-west trade 
winds which blow with much regularity. The annual average tem- 
perature in San Juan ranges from 78° to 82° F. The mean monthly 
temperature varies from 75° in January to 82° F. in August; the climate 
being very uniform as the highest temperature on record is 103° 
F., and the lowest 43° F. The differences of temperature observed 
throughout the Island are due to variations of altitude. 

Storms and Rainfall. Severe storms and earthquakes occur from 
time to time, the three most severe in the nineteenth century being, 
“San Felipe” in 1825, “San Narciso” in 1867, and “San Ciriaco”’ in 
1899. Rainfall is plentiful, although the southern part of the Island 
suffers from droughts, so much so that in some regions irrigation is 
necessary for the cultivation of crops. The average rainfall in San 
Juan averages 77.30 inches. Nearly two-thirds of this falls in the 
summer and autumn. The annual humidity in San Juan is high, 
averaging not far from 80°. Eastward from San Juan the rainfall 
increases, exceeding 135 inches on the northeast. The high lands of 
the interior also have a heavy rainfall. 

Population: Aborigines. The original population of Porto Rico, 
like that of the rest of the American continent, was Indian. No one 
knows just how thickly populated the Island was at the time of its 
discovery by Columbus, but judging from the Indian wars with the 
Spaniards the native population was rather large and somewhat 
organized. However, as a result of war, disease, emigration to other 
islands, hard labor in the mines and other slavish drudgeries to which 
the Indians were unaccustomed, the native population rapidly dis- 
appeared. Hardly a remnant of it exists to-day, although the Indian 
features can still be observed in many of the inhabitants. 

Colored. Importation of negroes into Porto Rico was authorized 
as early as 1513, but did not begin on any considerable scale until 
1530. By 1553 one thousand five hundred negroes had been legally 


Geography and Population of Porto Rico Ss 


imported. The rate of importation of negro slaves increased as the 
Indian population decreased. The total black population of the 
Island in 1872 was given as 257,709, of whom only 31,635 were slaves. 
These were given their freedom on March 22, 1873. The slaves were 
as a generalrule humanely treated and were granted many privileges, 
among them the right of purchasing their own freedom, of which 
many took advantage. 

The total population and its classification as white or colored is 
given for 1860, 1887 and 1899 by the census made in each of those 
years, as follows: 


1860 1887 1899 
Total Whites.............300,406 474,933 589,426 
otal Colored oh.).1. 5.6 sae 282,775 323,632 363,817 
Total Population. ........ 583,181 798,5654 953,243 


It will be noted that the percentage of whites in the total population 
increases with each census period, being 51.4 per cent in 1860, 59.4 
per cent in 1887 and 61.8 per cent in 1899. 

The figures for the subsequent years, more exactly classified, are as 
follows: 


1910 1920 


Class | | , ——_ Class —_————_——— — 
Number Percentage Number | Percentage 
Whites 732,555 65.5 Whites 948,709 13. 
Colored * 385,437 34.5 Colored 351,062 or 
Chinese 12 Chinese 32 
Japanese 8 All others 6 
Total 1,118,012 100. Total 1,299,809 100. 


1Does not include 8,143 absent residents. 


CHAPTER II 


SPANISH BACKGROUND AND CHURCH CONTROL OF 
EDUCATION 


In writing on education in Porto Rico, the temptation is to neglect 
the origins; to think of education as beginning at a time when we 
have a record of school laws and of the provision made by the gov- 
ernment. But legislation or governmental provision for education 
does not mark the beginning of education in any country. Legis- 
lation generally follows years of private enterprise, of work by pioneers 
whose efforts are recognized at last by the government. Govern- 
mental educational legislation, with the exception of Germany and 
Russia, is comparatively a modern movement as most of the Euro- 
pean countries had done very little for popular education before the 
nineteenth century. 

Inastudy of any of the Spanish colonies in America, it is well first 
to turn to Spain, noting what heritage she had to give to her colonies. 
Porto Rico was a Spanish colony for over four hundred years. She 
is Spanish in blood, in religion, in customs and in traditions. What 
did she inherit academically from the mother country? What were 
Spain’s cultural traditions and what had she done for popular educa- 
tion since its unification under Ferdinand and Isabella? 

The Unification of Spain. With the marriage of Isabella of Castile 
and Ferdinand of Aragon, a large part of the Spanish peninsula was 
united under one central government, which meant not only territorial 
unification, but united efforts against the Moors. The kingdom of 
the latter was finally conquered in 1492 and thus the monarchical 
unity was completed at the same time that America was being dis- 
covered, conquered and explored.?_ Besides territorial union at home, 
through the claims of the royal house of Aragon to the Neapolitan 
and Sicilian kingdoms, in 1504, Ferdinand definitely secured rec- 
ognition from France of his rights in Naples, Sicily and Sardinia. 
While interfering little with the local governments of the respective 


*Navarre was conquered by Ferdinand in 1515. 


(4) 


Spanish Background and Church Control of Education 5 


kingdoms, the King and Queen worked ever toward political hegem- 
ony, religious uniformity and absolutism. They did this by mat- 
rimonial ties with the ruling houses of Europe and by conquest of 
arms; by enlisting the Church in their service which gave rise to the 
expulsion of the Jews, the forceful conversion of the Mohammedan 
subjects and the establishment of the Inquisition; and by ingratiating 
themselves with the middle class and stripping the nobility in their 
respective kingdoms of its political influence. 

Education for the Nobility. The reign of Ferdinand and Isabella 
is noted for a general interest in cultural studies. The taste for letters 
and for arts in the peninsula, the spirit of the Italian Renaissance, 
which spread throughout the sister kingdom, and the impulse given 
to scientific study by the discovery of America gave impetus to all 
branches of learning and ushered in the golden age of Spanish culture. 
Isabella sought the most famous European teachers for her sons, 
which example affected all the nobility. Princes and courtiers en- 
dowed chairs, maintained lectures and erected imposing buildings 
for the universities. Many colleges were founded in which the 
nobility secured the best education available at that time. Spanish 
scholars sought the universities of Italy and France in which they 
perfected their studies begun at home. 

Popular Education Neglected. But this was a movement among 
the nobility and the wealthy classes. In the meantime the masses 
were neglected. The only official action toward popular education 
was a mere confirmation by the sovereigns of an order of Henry II of 
about the year 1370, which was concerned generally with elementary 
teachers, their examination, preparation, personal requirements and 
privileges. The teachers, after fulfilling the requirements, were per- 
mitted to receive pupils. This legislation was effective for all the 
Spanish territory of the time. The central authority was the King 
with the advice of El Consejo de Castilla. This council examined 
the teachers and issued teaching certificates or permits. Ferdinand 
and Isabella confirmed this order in 1500.2. These certified teachers 
opened schools, received pupils, made a living as best they could, 
and were more or less protected by royal favor. In the meantime 
the Church continued its usual activities in elementary education, as 
was the custom in all Christian countries at this time. 


3Luzuriaga, Lorenzo: Documentos para la Historta Escolar de Esparia, compiled by 
Lorenzo Luzuriaga, being the results of researches done in the Department of History, 
Centro de Estudios Histéricos, Madrid, under the leadership of Don Rafael Altamira, 
published in 1916. This document is found in Vol. I, pp. 1-9. 


6 Education in Porto Rico 


Discovery and Colonization of Porto Rico. Porto Rico was dis- 
covered by Christopher Columbus on November 16, 1493, during his 
second voyage to America. He landed in Aguada and took posses- 
sion in the name of the reigning sovereigns of Spain three days later. 
In view of reports that the mountain streams abounded with gold, 
Nicholas de Ovando, the Governor of Santo Domingo, sent Juan 
Ponce de Leon to explore the Island. He landed near Aguadilla with 
a small party of Spaniards and a few Indian guides. Being received 
kindly by the Indians, Ponce de Leon had an opportunity to verify 
the reports of gold and other minerals. He returned to Santo Do- 
mingo and was sent back to make a more thorough exploration. 
At this time he received a temporary appointment as Governor of 
Porto Rico on August 14, 1509. This appointment was confirmed 
on June 15, 1510. Hetook charge and founded the town of Caparra, 
about three miles from San Juan. ‘This town was later transferred 
to the present site of the city of San Juan and named Puerto Rico. 
Several wars with the Indians followed, due to the fact that they 
were enslaved by the settlers. In these wars a great many casual- 
ties occurred on the side of the Spaniards and many Spanish settle- 
ments were completely destroyed before the settlers succeeded in 
subduing the natives. 

Educational Beginnings in Porto Rico. The first efforts to establish 
educational institutions in Porto Rico were made by the Church. 
The Spanish colonists in America were accompanied by priests, who 
besides looking after the spiritual welfare of the settlers were also the 
friends of the Indians and were charged by the King and Queen to 
protect them from the cruelty of the colonists. As early as 1511, or 
two years after the settlement of the Island, King Ferdinand ordered 
the establishment of a monastery in charge of the Franciscan monks. 
They were to care for the material and spiritual welfare of the Indians 
and were also to instruct their children in the faith. Owing to lack 
of funds the monastery was not established at this time, but it is 
mentioned because it was the first attempt to establish a church school 
for the instruction of the Indians. As in the mother country the 
places of worship were also used for school purposes. The teaching 
was primarily religious and largely confined to the catechism, but it 
was also the purpose of the priests to teach the language to the natives 
as early as possible. As early as 1511, in the instructions given to 
Juan Ceron and Miguel Diaz, they were instructed to teach the 

“Tapia y Rivera: Biblioteca Histérica de Puerto Rico, p. 102. 


Spanish Background and Church Control of Education 7 


children the basis of the Christian faith so that they might go out 
and teach others.® 

The Hapsburgs in Spain. The unification of Spain demanded a 
policy of nationalization. The many kingdoms under the Spanish 
throne as well as the colonies in America needed to be brought to- 
gether culturally as well as politically. Ferdinand and Isabella 
were the rulers of a vast territory which was not by any means a unit. 
It should have been knit together into a nation by means of internal 
developments and the spread of a common culture; but with the rise 
of the House of Hapsburg this nationalization was neglected as the 
rulers of this dynasty were called upon to rule many nations of vast 
territory and were not able to concentrate their attention upon the 
development of any one in particular. This policy of imperialism drew 
Spain into many wars which were a constant drain upon her treasury 
and man power. Besides the political situation, the rulers of Spain 
took upon themselves the responsibility of stamping out heresy and 
attempting to check the progress of the Protestant Reformation. 

Spanish Culture Under the House of the Hapsburgs. As it was 
natural with the increase of the royal prerogative, the Spanish 
universities and culture in general enjoyed a period of unusual pros- 
perity and fame. Besides the universities there were many colleges 
founded by the Church and authorized by the Pope to confer de- 
grees. Other colleges sprang up around the universities and de- 
pendent upon them. It is said that Salamanca at its most flourish- 
ing period registered as many as 7,000 students and that the city pos- 
sessed also four higher colleges and twenty-two inferior. At Alcala 
de Henares, besides the university there were thirteen inferior col- 
leges.6 The greatest educational event in Spain during the sixteenth 
century was the organization of the Society of Jesus in 1540 by Igna- 
tius de Loyola, which, although in its early years it did not make 
the country of its origin the chief field of activity, nevertheless 
takes its place in history as the contribution of Spain to the forces 
which have shaped education throughout the Christian world. The 
Jesuit colleges as well as the universities were for the nobility, for 
the wealthy and for boys of promise. They were not for the common 
people. 

Popular Education. There was not the same thought and interest 


5Ibid., p. 114, 11°. ‘“‘Témense los mas nifios Indios que ser pueda para doctrinarlos 
como en la Espafiola; Ellos podrdn doctrinar a otros con mayor fruto. Tordesillas 
25 de julio de 1511.” 

6Monroe, Paul: Encyclopedia of Education, p. 380. 


8 Education in Porto Rico 


in popular education. The education of the people was carried on by 
the Church and by private teachers who taught those pupils who could 
pay a fee. However, royal favor to popular education was mani- 
fested and Charles I (Charles V of Germany) in 1540 confirmed the 
order of Henry II.’ Philip IT, in 1573, confirmed the actions of his 
predecessors and extended the privileges of the teachers of the second- 
ary schools and universities to the elementary school teachers. School 
visitors were to be appointed in every community to see that the orders 
of the king were carried out.’ ‘Thirty-six years later, in 1609, Philip 
III issued an order likewise confirming the orders of his predecessors.?° 
Up to this time and for some time following, government intervention 
in elementary education consisted in certifying teachers, who went 
out, opened schools, accepted pupils who could pay, made a living as 
best they could, and were more or less protected by royal favor. 


La Hermandad de San Castano. By the beginning of the seven- 
teenth century, the teachers of Madrid had begun to organize and 
before the middle of the century they had formed a society which 
controlled elementary education in Spain for over a century. This 
society was La Hermandad de San Casiano or the Fraternity of Saint 
Casiano. ‘The exact date of its origin is not known but it must have 
been well organized by the year 1642. It began as a society of the 
teachers of Madrid, taking its name from a bishop and martyr by 
the name of Saint Casiano. The aim of the society was to protect 
and improve elementary education.!° This fraternity, which later 
became known as the Congregation of Saint Casiano with its juris- 
diction extended over the whole nation, was practically in charge of 
elementary education until the year 1780, when it was terminated 
by the brethren themselves. Whatever educational legislation was 
issued during this period was either issued directly by the society or 
by the government on its advice.!' The other teaching congregations 
kept up their activities in elementary education. 

Schools and Their Curriculums and Teachers. There were separate 
and combined elementary schools for boys and girls. The curriculum 
chiefly consisted of catechism, reading, writing and ciphering. The 
teachers did not have to be members of the teaching order but re- 
ceived their certificates and instructions from the fraternity. They 
were free to open their schools where they wished and to collect fees 


"Luzuriaga, op. cit., Vol. I, pp. 1-9. 87bid., pp. 12-13. 
°Ibid., pp. 17-18. Ibid., pp. 19. 
Ufbid., pp. 19-134. 


Spanish Background and Church Control of Education 9 


from their pupils. There was keen competition among teachers and 
much “stealing’’ of pupils so that rules had to be issued prohibiting 
such actions. To prevent pupils unable to pay their fees from chang- 
ing teachers no one was allowed to accept a pupil who owed money to 
another teacher. 


Effects of European Wars on Porto Rico. The progress of Porto 
Rico during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was very slow. 
Efforts were put forth to develop the country by importing animals 
and tropical products, but the political situation in the mother coun- 
try and her wars with other European powers, favored by the strate- 
gic position of the Island, made of Porto Rico a center of attack by the 
enemies of Spain. During the reign of the Hapsburgs the Island 
was attacked twelve times by the English, the French and the Dutch. 
It was not a self-supporting colony and treasures were brought from 
Mexico to defray her expenses, but these were often captured by 
Spain’s enemies and by pirates. Besides these foreign wars the set- 
tlers had frequent encounters with the Indians, and also during the 
two centuries eight cyclones swept through the Island, destroying 
life and property. The slow progress can be surmised. 


Educational Conditions in Porto Rico, 1520-1700. Education con- 
tinued to be a function of the Church. As the settlements became 
well established, the Church, just as it aimed to teach the children, 
aimed to train the priests to minister to the Indians and to the set- 
tlers. Those desiring to prepare for the priesthood studied in the 
monasteries while the parish church served as the educational center 
for the children. Here they were taught the catechism, the prayers, 
and to read and write. 


Dominican Monastery. In 1523, when Diego Columbus, the son 
of the discoverer, was the Governor of the Island, the Dominican 
' monks petitioned the King, Charles I, for an order to establish a 
monastery in San Juan. The permission was secured and the build- 
ing begun. It was finished in 1529. In the same year the Bishop 
of La Espajfiola, on a trip through the Island, reported to His Majesty, 
the King, that there were twenty-five students in the monastery.” 
This was the first institution of learning in Porto Rico. At about 
the same time the Franciscan monks established a monastery in 


2Coleccién de Documentos Inédictos relativos al descubrimiento de América y 
Oceania, Vol. 37, p. 559. In Archivo de Indias Patronato Est. 2. Laj 1. Leg. 3. 


10 Education in Porto Rico 


Aguada under a few straw huts.“ This was destroyed soon after 
by the Indians. 

The Parish Church as a Center of Learning. In 1528 the King ad- 
vised the Bishop and the Governor of Porto Rico with regard to the 
education of the children as follows: ‘‘and in order that the children 
may be better indoctrinated in the faith it is ordered that all children 
between the ages of six and twelve who are in your care should be 
taken to the Church every morning in order that they might be in- 
structed in the Christian faith.’* According to Dr. Coll y Toste, 
before 1582 an empty hospital building in San Juan, Sanct Alifonso, 
was utilized for school purposes and the teacher was paid from a 
donation given for the purpose by a certain Anton Lucas. In 1589, 
some money was left by a certain Francisco Ruiz to the cathedral in 
San Juan to pay the teacher of grammar connected with that church.” 
By the year 1607, there was a building under the palm trees adjoin- 
ing the cathedral wherein lived prebendaries who performed their 
duties as priests and at the same time “‘read grammar” to the children 
of the community. The house was burned during the Dutch siege 
of San Juan in 1625'° but it was rebuilt and the classes continued. 
Jose de Jarava, who was the teacher of grammar here in 1641, placed 
the following Latin inscription on the outside of the door: 


Hic habitant musae hic servant 
Sua pignora parcae 
Vivere disce puer dogmata disce mori.” 

The Franciscan Order. 'The Franciscans made another effort to 
establish themselves in the Island more than one hundred years 
after their second attempt. On September 11, 1641, a royal order 
was issued giving them permission to build in San Juan. The town 
council donated a lot and the corner stone was laid October 3, 1642. 
The work of teaching began immediately but the building was de- 
layed for lack of funds. In 1650 the building was only a “ranchén”’ 
or shed roofed with “‘yaguas.’!8 But the next year, Don Diego de 
Aguilera, then Governor, forced soldiers to work on the building and 
it was soon finished.!® 


Brau, Salvador: La Colonizacién de Puerto Rico, pp. 326-27. 

MTapia y Rivera, op. cit., p. 114. 

Coll y Toste, Historia de la Instruccién Publica en Puerto Rico, p. 13. 
Brau, Historia de Puerto Rico, p. 119. 

“Tapia y Rivera, op. cit., p. 487. 

184 part of the palm leaf. 

Brau, Historia de Puerto Rico, p. 157. 


Spanish Background and Church Control of Eduction 11 


Report on Educational Conditions. On September 27, 1644, the 
Bishop of Porto Rico sent a report to the King in which he mentions 
the churches of San Juan, San German and Guadianilla. In the per- 
sonnel of the cathedral in San Juan, he mentions “dos docenas de 
estudiantes gramaticos,” two dozen grammar students.2° With ref- 
erence to the convents he mentions the following: One convent of 
Santo Domingo in San Juan with thirty students, one convent of 
Santo Domingo in San German with two students and one Franciscan 
convent in San Juan with six students.”! 


Early Education of Girls. The girls, like the boys, were educated 
by the Church. In 1623 a Doctor Balbuena tried to secure a permit 
to build a convent for the Carmelite nuns, but was refused until 
enough money could be secured to build and furnish the institution. 
Then Dofia Ana de Cauzos gave her farm for the purpose and on 
July 1, 1646, a royal order was issued authorizing the building of the 
convent.” After this follows many years of silence regarding the 
establishment of schools of any kind. It is natural to suppose that 
the work of the monasteries and convents continued and that these 
institutions together with private classes by priests and private 
teachers were the means of instruction for the few who could afford 
to pay for an education, this being the practice in the mother country. 
The teaching in the churches among the poorer classes generally 
confined itself to the prayers and the catechism. 


Spain in the Eighteenth Century. With the fall of the House of’ 


20Manuscript in Bibliotéca Nacional, Madrid (unpublished). Library reference 
No. 3047. Relacidn de lo que es la Isla de Puerto Rico enviada por el Obispo en 1644” 
Folio 1. “‘y en conclussion lo mejor que tiene esta ciudad son las vricgas y elagua, con 
que todos quedamos con salud, adios gracias, por donde un hombre a quien pidié 
una sefiora de Santo Domingo que le diesse noticias berdaderas, de lo que era esta 
ciudad le respondié en el soneto:— 
Esta es sefiora, una pequefia yslilla 
falta de bastimentos y dinero 
andan los negros como en esa en cueros 
y ay mas gente en la carcel de Sevilla. 
Aqui estan los blasones de castilla 
en pocas casas muchos caballeros 
todos tratantes en xemxibre y cueros 
los Mendocas, Guzmanes y el Padilla. 
Ay agua en los aljibes si allovido 
yglesia cathedral clérigos pocos 
hermosas damas faltas dedonayre 
la ambincion y laimbidia aqui annacido 
Mucho calor y sombra de los cocos 
y es lo mejor de todo un poco de ayre.”’ 
41Same manuscript in Biblioteca Nacional, folio 7. 
“Brau, op. cit, p. 157. 


12 Education in Porto Rico 


Hapsburg in Spain and the seating of the House of Bourbon, the 
nation looked to the future with greater hope of recovering her lost 
power. The first four Bourbons (1700-1808) were intensely interested 
in Spanish national problems. They aimed to restore the national 
wealth, to foster agriculture, re-establish industry and commerce, 
and particularly to provide for the diffusion of culture. But Spain’s 
imperialistic traditions and her relationship with the French kings 
kept her busy in military adventures which were a drawback to the 
plans of reconstruction. With the succession of Charles III (1759- 
1788) better days dawned. Although the nation was involved in 
the war between France and England in 1761, this did not disturb 
the course of the internal administration to the improvement of which 
men like Aranda, Campomanes, Olavides and Florida Blanca de- 
voted themselves. Charles was a sincerely benevolent despot and 
with the aid of these able ministers he made many improvements. 
He suppressed the Jesuits, checked the exaggerated zeal of the In- 
quisition, put police in the streets of Madrid, encouraged German 
farmers to settle in Spain, built roads and canals, fostered manu- 
factures, patronized science and nearly doubled the fleet. During 
his reign the revenues of the nation tripled and its population in- 
creased from seven to eleven millions. With the death of Charles ITI, 
his son Charles IV at first followed the reforming policy of his father; 
but in 1792 when Florida Blanca was superseded by Godoy as Prime 
Minister, the hope of reform was very much at stake. Spain had 
opposed the French Republic and joined in the war against it, but 
by the influence of Godoy the peace of Basel was concluded, in which 
Spain resigned Santo Domingo to France, entered into an offensive 
and defensive alliance with her in 1796 and declared war against 
Britain. The events which followed made of the reign of the fourth 
Bourbon a complete catastrophe, dominated mainly by the Prime 
Minister. His reign ended with his abdication in favor of his son, 
Ferdinand, and with the transfer of the whole Spanish royal house- 
hold to Bayonne by Napoleon in 1808. 

Education in Spain in the Eighteenth Century. Spanish connection 
with the French ruling house as well as many events which brought her 
into contact with European culture had its influence on Spanish intel- 
lectual life, which in a small way reached the popular classes through 
a philanthropic movement. This was manifested mostly after the 
middle of the century. During the first half of the century education 
continued much as before and elementary education was controlled 


Spanish Background and Church Control of Education 13 


by the Fraternity of Saint Casiano. But with the ascent of Charles 
III to the throne, a general interest in secular education was mani- 
fested. The two European educators who had most influence over 
Spain at this time were Rousseau in the first part of the century and 
Pestalozzi in the latter part. The nobility, the crown, societies of 
ladies, economic societies and religious orders established schools. 
Some educational treatises were written and there was a general 
tendency to secularize education, but without success, as the teaching 
of religion continued to be the basis of elementary education. 

El Colegio Académico del Noble Arte de Primeras Letras. In 1780, 
by order of Charles III, the Fraternity of San Casiano was super- 
seded by El Colegio Académico del Noble Arte de Primeras Letras. 
This new society also maintained the fraternity organization, spirit 
and discipline. Its members were first the teachers of the elementary 
schools of Madrid, but they aimed to have the same national juris- 
diction which the fraternity of Samt Casiano had enjoyed, a fact 
which is well expressed by the following aim:—‘‘To encourage in all 
the kingdom the right kind of education for the youth, based on the 
fundamentals of the Catholic faith, in the exercise of virtue and in 
the noble art of reading, writing and ciphering.’ This society 
controlled elementary education for about ten years. 

Interest in Popular Education. Cooperating with the Colegio 
Académico del Noble Arte de Primeras Letras, the King issued an 
order on July 12, 1781, that all parents able to pay for the education 
of their children should send them to school, have them taught to 
read and write and also give them a trade. Poor children were 
placed in charge of public authorities who were ordered to teach 
them reading, writing, ciphering, and also a trade. This is the first 
sign of any sort of compulsory education in Spain.** The poor were 
expected to go to the schools maintained by the Church and in Madrid 
to eight “‘escuelas reales’”” founded and maintained by ‘the crown.” 
It was also reported at this time that the first official move was made 
to provide schools for girls. On May 11, 1783, Charles III issued 
an order establishing thirty-two schools for girls, to be taught by 
women who had to pass an examination in catechism, needle-work 
and reading. Each teacher was to receive about fifty pesos a year. 
The curriculum comprised catechism, good manners and hand work, 


%Luzuriaga, op. cit., Vol. I, pp. 135-917. 
4Tbid. 
*%Cossio, Manual B.: La Ensefianza Primaria en Espafia, p. 21. 


14 Education in Porto Rico 


chiefly needle-work, while reading was taught only to those who re- 
quested it.”6 

La Academia de Primera Educacién. While the Colegio Académico 
was exercising official powers in education, another society was formed 
called La Academia de Primera Educacién. This was recognized by 
Charles IV in 1791 and took the place of the Colegio Académico.” 
Schools unofficially established continued their activities, the influence 
of European political and educational movements began to be felt 
more and more in Spain. 

Educational Activities at the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century. 
Educational reforms in Europe, and more especially in France, had 
an immediate influence over Spain. The end of the eighteenth 
century and the beginning of the nineteenth century are marked by 
a movement to centralize the system of education and make it a 
government function. The Academia de Primera Educacién lost its 
privileges and the government took over the administration of edu- 
cation.2> Many efforts were put forth to improve the system of 
education according to a law drawn up for the purpose. In 1804 an 
examining board was established to confer certificates of qualification 
on teachers.2? An attempt was made in 1806 to prepare teachers 
when the government founded a school in Madrid which was to be 
conducted according to Pestalozzian principles. This was put in 
charge of Swiss masters and successfully conducted for two years, 
special attention being given to the preparation of teachers. Un- 
fortunately, it was suppressed on January 13, 1808, as a result of 
Napoleon’s invasion.*° 

The Eighteenth Century in Porto Rico. Porto Rico did not cease 
to be an object of attack by the enemies of Spain and during the eight- 
eenth century it was attacked nine times by the English and once 
by the Dutch. The most nearly successful attempt to wrest Porto 
Rico from Spain was in 1797, when a British squadron of sixty vessels 
and a detachment of 6,500 men attacked San Juan. They effected 
a landing and for two weeks held the city under fire, but at last they 
were forced to withdraw. Besides these wars, one cyclone in 1785, 
an earthquake in 1787 and many epidemics due to poor sanitary 
conditions added to the misery and to the difficulty of the problems 


*Luzuriaga, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 221. 

7Ibid., pp. 242, 247. Cossio, op. cit., p. 21. 

*8Tbid., Vol. II, pp. 5-7. 

*°Tbid., Vol. II, pp. 5-7. Cossio, op. cit., p. 23. 

°Tbid., Vol. II, pp.79. Cossio, op. cit.,p.25. 56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 111. 


Spanish Background and Church Control of Education 15 


to be solved. In spite of all this, attempts were made to improve 
conditions in the Island, especially after the ascent of Charles IIT. 

Report of Field Marshal Alejandro O’Reilly. The reforms of 
Charles III were to be extended to the possessions in America. Con- 
sequently, in 1765, the King sent Field Marshal Alejandro O’Reilly 
to Porto Rico to investigate the conditions of the Island and to make 
a report. O’Reilly found twenty villages besides San Juan and San 
German, with a population of 44,883 inhabitants, of which 5,000 
wereslaves. Hereorganized the military forces and urged the strength- 
ening of the fortifications. Convict labor was imported and large 
amounts of money were spent chiefly for military purposes. After 
this report was made a new military and colonial administration was 
inaugurated, several villages were given municipal councils, currency 
was reformed, a custom house was established in San Juan, postal 
service was instituted, economic conditions were improved, and, 
through the encouragement of immigration, the population increased. 

Educational Conditions. Education continued to be a function of 
the Church, but the philanthropic interest evidenced in the mother 
country was manifested in the Island during the latter part of the 
century. O’Reilly in his report pictures the backward cultural estate 
of the people thus: 

In order to understand how the people have lived and are living, it is well to know 
that there are only two schools for boys in the whole Island, that outside of Porto 
Rico (the present city of San Juan) and the village of San German, very few know 
how toread. They keep account of time by the terms of the Governors, hurricanes, 
visits of the Bishop to the towns, arrivals of or bombardments of the Island by 


foreign ships. They measure the length of a journey according to the time it takes 
them to walk the distance. The wealthiest men in the country go barefooted.*! 


Objections to O’Reilly’s Report. Don José Julian Acosta was in- 
clined to believe that this criticism of cultural conditions of the Island 
in 1765 was too severe. Dr. C. Coll y Toste also makes the same 
objection. He furthermore quotes extensively from a document of 
1770 wherein were found some instructions regarding the establish- 
ment of schools. ‘These were orders given by the Governor to the 
military officers of the different districts. Don Miguel de Muesas, 
the Governor, ordered his subordinates that in each district a person 
of good repute should be engaged in teaching the children. Parents 
were to send at least half of their children to school until they knew 
how to read and write. A collection was to be taken among the 


Tapia y Rivera, op. cit., p. 156. 56th Congress, S. D. 363, p. 109. 


16 Education in Porto Rico 


parents to pay the salary of the teacher. The curriculum was to 
consist of catechism, reading, writing and ciphering. The district 
officers were compelled to canvass their territory and see that parents 
obeyed the law.*? This is the influence of the educational movement 
that was active in Spain and in fact in all of Europe, but there is no evi- 
dence that the orders were ever carried out. The fact that such 
instructions were given to the district officers does not prove that the 
schools existed and that education was compulsory, any more than 
the school law of 1857 in Spain proves that she has had since then a 
thoroughly organized compulsory system of education, providing an 
opportunity for every child to receive an elementary education. 
Spanish school laws are masterpieces on paper, but there has not 
been one Spanish school law which was ever fully executed. 
University Movement. About the year 1770 there was a movement 
to establish a university in San Juan. Colonel Don Miguel de Muesas, 
then Governor General, proposed to His Majesty, Charles III, the 
establishment of such a university in the buildings occupied by the 
Dominican monastery. Although it may seem strange to found a 
university when there were no public schools, yet the universities 
have preceded the public schools in all the countries of the world. 
The first schools of the new world were the universities of Santo 
Domingo, founded in 1538, and of San Marcos, in Lima, founded in 
1550. As there was no university in Porto Rico, the youth had to go 
to foreign countries to pursue their university studies. Generally 
they went to Venezuela, Santo Domingo and Spain.** The university 
did not materialize and the students continued to go abroad for their 
higher education. Alexander Humboldt, the German scientist, 
mentions the fact that in his travels in South America he met at the 
University of Caracas two Porto Ricans who distinguished them- 
selves in the science of botany. He made this trip between the 
years 1799 and 1804, travelling through the West Indies, Venezuela, 
Colombia and Peru.** Meanwhile the Dominican monastery was the 
highest center of learning in the Island and when the university 
movement failed, this school extended its curriculum as best it could. 
In 1790, at the beginning of the disturbances in Santo Domingo and 
Haiti, an attempt was made to have the University of Santo Domingo 


@Coll y Toste, op. cit., pp. 15-16. 

“Tomas de Cérdoba, Pedro: Memoria sobre todos los Ramos de Administractén de 
la Isla de Puerto Rico, p. 320. 

“Ifigo Abad: Historia Gegrdfica, Civil y Natural de la Isla de Puerto Rico, nueva 
edicién anotada por José Julian Acosta, p. 410. 


Spanish Background and Church Control of Education 17 


transferred to San Juan, but without success. Other attempts to 
establish secondary schools at this time failed. Later, in 1816, a 
chair of anatomy was established in the hospital at San Juan, and in 
1819 the Franciscan friars founded a chair of theology in their con- 
vent.* 

Education for Girls at the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century. On 
November 25, 1799, at a meeting of the city council in San Juan, 
one of the matters considered was the necessity of establishing an 
“equal number of schools for girls,’ one in each of the four squares 
of the city.*® It isnatural to suppose that there existed four schools 
for boys. One of the members of the council, Don Antonio de Cér- 
doba, was asked to look for four teachers who were morally and in- 
tellectually qualified to fill the positions of teachers in these schools. 
On December 2, of the same year, at another meeting of the council, 
Sefior de Cérdoba reported that he had interviewed Paula Molinero, 
Juana Polanco, Josefa Echevarria and Maria Dolores Aranjo, ladies 
who in his opinion were qualified to take care of the education of the 
girls in the four squares of the city. Two weeks later, on December 
16, the council had another meeting at which the Governor General, 
Don Ramon de Castro, was present. The matter of the girls’ schools 
was again brought up. The secretary was authorized to draw up 
plans for the schools, to make contracts with the teachers, and to 
send the same to the Governor General for approval. The schools 
were evidently started and at least three teachers employed, for on 
March 1, 1804, the teachers applied to the council for their back 
salaries which had not been paid. On that date Juana Antonia 
Aranjo, Josefa Echevarria, and Juana Polanco, teachers of primary 
instruction, as they were officially called, sent a communication to 
the city council calling the attention of that body to the fact that 
said body had been satisfied with their efforts to teach the catechism 
and sewing, but that they had been denied their salaries of fifty pesos 
a year, which sum had been named as remuneration for their work. 
They asked the city council to order its secretary to pay the arrears 
in salary. This was not done, for on December 6 of the same year, 
the teachers again brought the matter to the attention of the council. 
This time it was either neglected or an unsatisfactory reply was sent 
to the teachers, for six days after, on December 12, they asked to 
be allowed to examine the minutes of the council meeting, at which 


%56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 111. 
% Angelis: Miscelianas Puerto Riquefias, p. 137. 


18 Education in Porto Rico 


they were appointed, that they might see for themselves just what 
action that body had taken and under what terms they had originally 
been employed.*” The activity of the Church and the private school 
teachers continued, but nothing had been achieved thus far for popular 
support of education. The influence of the contemporary Spanish 
movement did not have any practical effects on the Island. 

Napoleonic Invasion and Spanish Resistance. In July, 1808, under 
the protection of French troops, Joseph Bonaparte took possession 
of the Spanish government. Although the Spanish people hated 
the late King, Charles IV, and his Prime Minister Godoy, they were 
fond of his son Ferdinand, and preferred him for king rather than 
Napoleon’s brother, a foreigner and intruder. It was very easy for 
Napoleon to put his brother on the Spanish throne but very hard to 
keep him there. Priests and nobles made common cause with com- 
moners and peasants in a terrific endeavor to drive out the foreigners. 
A bitter struggle ensued between the French government and the 
Spaniards who organized in “juntas” or revolutionary committees 
to rule in the name of Ferdinand. Aided by Great Britain, the 
Spaniards carried on the peninsular war until Napoleon’s troops 
finally withdrew in 1814. 

The Cortes of Cadiz and Educational Reform. During the French 
occupation, Spain was ruled by a Central Committee which met in 
Cadiz, and swore allegiance to Ferdinand as the rightful heir to the 
Spanish throne. In 1812 the Central Committee drew up a Con- 
stitution for the nation. This document was influenced by the 
American constitution, by the documents drawn up during the French 
Revolution and by the contemporary events in Europe. It was 
based upon very liberal principles and was more radical than either 
the American or the French constitution. Article XII of the 
constitution regarding public instruction provided for the establish- 
ment of elementary schools in all cities and villages. The curriculum 
to be taught was reading, writing, arithmetic and catechism. The 
plan was made uniform for all the nation. It also provided that 
higher education should be maintained according to the needs of the 
population, but the emphasis was placed on elementary education.*® 
Education was recognized as a state function. | 

Porto Rico during the Napoleonic Invasion. No sooner had the 


Angelis, op. cit., pp. 18-20. 
38Luzuriaga, op. cit., Constitution of March 8, 1812. Vol. II, pp. 82-85. 
Monroe: Encyclopedia of Education. See Spain. 


Spanish Background and Church Control of Education 19 


news of the Napoleonic invasion reached America than the Spanish 
colonies began to organize plans to govern themselves. They did 
not intend at first to break away from the mother country, for they 
all held allegiance to the Prince of Asturias, but they were unwilling 
to submit themselves to the French régime. They established re- 
gional governments and sent representatives to the Central Committee 
in Spain. Porto Rico also declared its allegiance to the Prince, but 
in case he were not restored the Island reserved the right to govern 
itself as it pleased. In 1809 Porto Rico was allowed one representa- 
tive in the Cortes, and Ramén Powers was selected for the position. 
The Island began to prosper economically and in 1811 the administra- 
tion of public funds was reorganized. In 1813 Porto Rico’s first 
insular government, the Provincial Deputation, met. The same 
year the “Sociedad Econémica de los Amigos del Pais,”’ the Economic 
Society of the Friends of the Country, was founded in San Juan by 
the sub-treasurer®® Don Alejandro Ramirez. Many similar societies 
were founded in the Spanish colonies at this time. One of the prin- 
cipal aims was to foster public education. 

The Insular Government Intervenes in Elementary Education. ‘The 
first sign of governmental intervention in education in Porto Rico 
occurs at this time when the colonies were left to govern themselves. 
On July 22, 1809, Governor Salvador Meléndez ordered the munici- 
pality of San Juan to appoint an inspector of the elementary schools.” 
The following year he ordered that there should be distributed to the 
schools writing copy books, primers, a book of moral readings, cate- 
chisms and paper, and further, that there should be held in all of the 
schools annual examinations.*! This intervention seems to imply 
that there were, by 1810, schools supported by public funds or 
private schools aided by public funds. The fact that annual ex- 
aminations were officially ordered by the Governor General shows 
that the schools had something of a public character. 

The Restoration in Spain. While Ferdinand was in exile he was 
trying constantly to regain his throne. All sorts of intrigues were 
being carried on against the liberal government and the Con- 
stitution of 1812. At last in 1814 he was restored to the Spanish 
throne, his restoration being only one event in the general political 
reaction in Europe and corresponding to the month with the restora- 


39Intendente. 
49Ferrer Hernandez, Gabriel: La Instruccién Publica én Puerto Rico, p. 21. 
41Jhid. 56th Cong. S. D. 363, pp. 117-18. 


20 Education in Porto Rico 


tion of another Bourbon to the French throne. The restoration 
government was a continuation of the traditions of Charles IV, only 
more despotic. Ferdinand apparently had learned nothing in his years 
of exile and came backa greater despot than ever. On May 11 he de- 
creed the dissolution of the Cortes, thus annulling the Constitution 
of 1812 with all the reforms of the native government. He persecuted 
the liberals, many of whom had to leave the country, established the 
Inquisition, and placed the country in a worse state of political re- 
action than that existing in the seventeenth century and the beginning 
of the eighteenth. 

The Restoration and Education. As it was to be expected, the King’s 
activities in education were extremely reactionary. The Jesuits 
were readmitted, convents were opened and multiplied, the universi- 
ties and theatres were closed, the publication of all newspapers, other 
than the official gazette, was prohibited, and material progress in 
general was checked. Elementary education was placed in the hands 
of the Church and while a multitude of royal decrees and orders 
concerning education were issued, they amounted to nothing, for the 
country was bankrupt and political chaos reigned.” 

Political Situation in Porto Rico. In Porto Rico the political 
situation followed that of Spain. On receiving news of the restoration 
Governor General Meléndez celebrated the occasion with music, 
fireworks, and a Te Deum in honor of the absolute King. The Pro- 
vincial Deputation was dissolved and the old order was re-established. 
In spite of this general reaction, due to immigration from the other 
Spanish colonies and the opening of commercial relations with foreign 
countries, the Island enjoyed some economic prosperity. 

Educational Conditions in Porto Rico at the Time of the Restoration. 
The Economic Society, one of the chief aims of which was the pro- 
motion of education, was not able to accomplish anything before 
1820 and held only two meetings before that date.** Royal decrees 
and orders regarding education in Porto Rico were issued at this time, 
but they had even less chance of being put into operation than those 
applicable to Spain. In 1815 there was a royal order which bore 
directly on education in the Indies. In June of that year an order 
was issued referring to another of November 5, 1782.44 The later 
one urges that the earlier one be put into operation, that efforts be 


“Luzuriaga, op. cit., Vol. II, pp. 115-70. 
856th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 112. Brau, op. cit., pp. 224-25. 
“Zamorra y Coronado, José Maria: Biblioteca de Legislacién p. 174. 


Spanish Background and Church Control of Education 21 


put forth to establish the schools provided by law, that proper action 
be taken to make education compulsory and that legal means be pro- 
vided to compel parents to send their children to school. The schools 
were to be supported by the communities and care was to be taken 
in the selection of teachers that they were well qualified. The clergy 
were advised to do all in their power to aid education and to take 
special care that the children learned well the Spanish language. 
In towns where there were no schools the people were to invite the 
priest to take charge of the education of the youth. This later order 
merely showed that the first had never been obeyed and there is no 
evidence that the later one was ever put into operation. 

There is another order which throws some light on the state of 
education in 1815. On May 4 the viceroys, presidents and governors 
in the colonies were ordered to visit the establishments of education 
and the hospitals in order to make suitable reforms. The Governor 
General communicated the order to the cathedral chapter at San 
Juan and to the city council. These were to name a representative 
to accompany him in his visit of inspection. He said that they would 
proceed to make the visit, “beginning with the class studying in the 
convent of Santo Domingo, sending first an official letter to the prior 
as well as to the other prelates and persons belonging to the schools 
and hospitals, and that the same kind of a visit should be made in 
the village of San German, where there were schools and hospitals.’’* 
If San German was the only other town besides San Juan that re- 
quired inspection, it is logical to suppose that in the rest of the Island 
instruction was limited to the teaching of the catechism, reading, 
writing, and ciphering given either by the priest or by private individu- 
als who taught those who could afford to pay. Public interest in 
public education did not begin in the Island until 1820. 

Testimony of José Julian Acosta on the Beginnings of Education in 
Porto Rico. A general review of the educational efforts in Porto 
Rico up to 1820 was given by Don José Julian Acosta in his address 
at the inauguration of the Civil Institute of Secondary Education in 
1882. In that address he said: “Since the first dawning of Porto 
Rican life, and in diverse and repeated epochs, let it be said in honor 
of our ancestors that there have lived in this Island men of noble 
and generous spirit who promoted the improvement of public in- 
struction. As a proof to this statement there are in the sixteenth 
century the venerable names of Anton Lucas and Francisco Ruiz, 


56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 111. 


22 Education in Porto Rico 


founders of the study of Latin. In the seventeenth century the name 
of Friar Jorge Chambers, who founded the chairs of grammar and 
philosophy in the monastery of the Dominican friars; and in the 
eighteenth century the names of Doctors Acosta and Ruiz, who 
tried to establish chairs of jurisprudence, and of Xiorro, Pizarro, 
Davila, Cordova and Quifiones, who in the name of the ayuntamiento 
of this capital petitioned the monarch to remove to this city the 
Pontifical University of Santo Domingo.’ We may or may not 
agree with Dr. Acosta in his evaluation of education during the first 
three centuries of the Island as a Spanish colony, but from this 
quotation we get a glimpse of the spirit of those who in the first years 
of the life of the Island had a vision for the future and who in their 
poor and limited way made their contribution to educational progress. 

Summary. By way of summary, it can be said that educational 
activity in Porto Rico before 1820 was an imitation of Spain and that 
the fortunes of the mother country affected the fortunes of the Island. 
As in the mother country, whatever legislation there was concerning 
education was seldom carried out. There was very little interest in 
public education in spite of the statements made by Dr. Acosta and 
others. With few exceptions education was confined to the wealthy 
classes who could pay a private teacher, or send their children to the 
church schools where also they had to pay. Education was a function 
of the church as it was in Spain and those who taught in private 
schools generally followed the curriculum of the church and taught 
catechism, reading, writing and ciphering. Secondary and theologi- 
cal education was furnished by the monasteries. ‘The movement for 
the establishment of the university was never successful and those 
wishing a higher or professional education, with the exception of the 
priesthood, had to pursue their studies abroad. 


56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 109. 


CHAPTER III 


EDUCATION UNDER THE CONTROL OF EDUCATIONAL 
SOCIETIES [1820-1865] 


A. SpanisH HistorRicaAL AND EpucaTIONAL BACKGROUND 


Education in Porto Rico as an insular movement begins in reality 
in 1820 under the influence of the Liberal régime in Spain. But the 
Island as a colony shared the political disturbances of the mother 
country and likewise the changing educational policies. Neverthe- 
less, the conception of education as a public function of the State 
grew slowly until 1865 when it was thus recognized. Much of the 
educational effort was manifested in what might be called secondary 
and professional education, the demand for this coming from the 
wealthier classes, while popular education was more neglected. For 
the sake of clearness, elementary and secondary and _ professional 
education will be treated in different chapters. The efforts put forth 
to establish elementary public schools may be subdivided into five 
periods, according as schools were administered, or according to royal 
decrees concerning education. 

First, education under the divided administration of the Economic 
Society of the Friends of the Country, and the Provincial Deputation 
to 1850; second, education under the supervision of “La Academia 
Real de Bellas Letras’? (Royal Academy of Belles Lettres), covering 
a space of fifteen years, to 1865; third, education under the “De- 
creto Organico del 10 de Junio de 1865” (Organic Decree of June 10, 
1865), nine years to 1874; fourth, education as affected by the Re- 
forms of General Sanz, six years, to 1880; and, fifth, education under 
“El Decreto Orgdnico de 1880’ (Organic Decree of 1880), eighteen 
years, to 1898. 

The Reign of Ferdinand VII: The Liberals and the Conservatives. 
During the six years of French dominion, the people had united in 
opposition to the invaders. The influence of the French Revolution, 
the government under the Constitution of 1812 and six years of ex- 


(23) 


Q4 Education in Porto Rico 


perience in self-government had formed a nucleus of men the activities 
of whom no amount of reactionary policies could check. This group 
of irreconcilables formed the beginning of the so-called Liberals. 
On the other hand, the nobility, the clergy, other privileged classes 
and the lower peasantry whom these controlled, sided with the King 
and formed an opposing group, extremely reactionary, called the 
Conservatives. The political history of Spain during most of the 
nineteenth century is a constant struggle between the Conservatives 
on one side and the Liberals on the other. 


The Liberals Rise to Power in 1820. The reactionary régime in- 
stituted in 1814, apparently successful at first, united the Liberals 
in a secret propaganda against the Throne, and at the same time they 
spread the teachings of the French Revolution among all their mem- 
bers. One of their chief objectives was to overthrow the King, or 
at least to force upon him the Constitution of 1812. In order to 
accomplish this end they spread dissatisfaction in the army which 
the King was assembling for the subjugation of the Spanish Ameri- 
can colonies. In 1819 a mutiny of the army was the signal for a 
general insurrection which in the first two months of 1820 broke out 
in different parts of the nation. The Revolution was successful and 
in March 1820, the King gave his royal oath to support the Consti- 
tution of 1812. The insurgents took him at his word and laid down 
their arms. 


The Introduction of the Monitorial System in Spain. Even before 
the success of the Liberals in 1820 the monitorial system of Bell and 
Lancaster had already become popular in Europe and was being in- 
troduced in America. In 1819 it was officially introduced in Spain. 
By royal order of March 30, there was established in Madrid a central 
school to be conducted according to Lancasterian methods. This 
institution was to serve as a model school to others to be established 
in different parts of the nation, which were to be administered by the 
officers of the central school in Madrid. A board composed of mem- 
bers of the nobility was placed in charge of the administration of all 
the Lancasterian schools.! Later in the year, October 6, another 
royal order was issued authorizing all towns, corporations or individu- 
als who so desired to open Lancasterian schools provided they were 
all under the inspection and supervision of the board already appointed 
for the purpose. This board besides supervising instruction was to 


1Luzuriaga, op. cit., Vol. II, pp. 148-50. 


Education Under Educational Societies (1820-1865) O5 


examine all teachers.2. The introduction of this system into Spain 
was not due to the desire of the King to educate his subjects, but to 
the popularity of the monitorial system at this time among the 
Liberals themselves. 

Educational Programme of the Liberal Régime of 1820. The interest 
in popular education awakened by the monitorial system made a 
fitting background for the educational reforms introduced by the 
Liberals in 1821. The Cortes attempted to reorganize the system of 
education from the elementary school to the University. All educa- 
tional institutions supported wholly or in part or authorized by the 
government were declared to be free and uniform. 

It was ordered that schools should be established in all villages of 
one hundred inhabitants or over and that in towns and cities of five 
hundred inhabitants or over there should be a school for every five 
hundred. Schools for girls were also to be established. A central 
Educational Board of seven members was to have full administration 
of all public education. The Liberal government also provided for 
special schools for soldiers to be conducted according to the methods 
of Bell and Lancaster.* 

Restoration and Absolutism. The reforms of the Liberals were not 
to last long, for there were many forces both at home and abroad 
working against the success of the Liberalrégime. At home the King 
was constantly at work trying to recover his absolute power. He 
was supported by the clergy and the nobles who resisted the execu- 
tion of reform legislation. Abroad, reactionary powers of Europe 
saw in the Spanish revolt of 1820 and in the reforms of the Liberals, 
the beginning of a revolution, and were terrified by the thought of 
what the success of such a movement might mean to the whole 
Continent. Consequently reactionary Europe began to look for an 
opportunity to intervene in the internal affairs of Spain. 

This was realized in 1823, when the governments of France, Austria, 
Russia and Prussia demanded the abolition of the Constitution of 
1812 and the liberation of the King from the restraint that had been 
imposed upon him on the ground that the anarchical condition of the 
country justified such a demand. On the refusal of the Spanish 
Liberals a French army crossed the Pyrenees and enforced the demand 
of the powers. Absolutism was restored in 1824 and the reaction which 


2Ibid., Real Orden de 6 de Octubre de 1819, pp. 165-67. 
3I7bid., Reglamento General de Instruccién Publica de 29, Junio 1821, pp. 172-81. 
4Tbid., Decreto del 28 de Junio, 1821, pp. 172. 


26 Education in Porto Rico 


followed was more extreme than had been that of ten years before. 
Until his death in 1833, Ferdinand ruled Spain as an irresponsible 
despot. 

Education in Spain Under the Reaction. Under such conditions 
progress in education, and in fact progress of any kind, was not to be 
expected. Soon after the rise of the Conservatives in 1824, a royal 
order of the 25th of March renewed the decree of November 13, 
1815, asking the Bishops of the churches to establish primary schools 
in the convents of their respective dioceses.> This was done to check 
the influence of the liberal government, as its teachings were considered 
very pernicious. On June 23 of the same year the General Com- 
mittee of Charities in Madrid was authorized to examine and certify 
the primary school teachers. The King and the Church were allied 
to check the teachings of the liberals and the best way to do that was 
to give the church ample powers in education. 

A step forward was made the next year. The first school law, 
fully organizing elementary education, was passed February 16, 1825.7 
By the following list of contents we can get an idea of the fullness of 
the law: 


The Law of 1825. 
Schools and Their Definition. 
Equipment and Text Books. 
Admission of Children. Days and Hours of Classes. 
Methods of Teaching. 
Examination of Public and Private Pupils. 
Rewards and Punishments. 
Teachers’ Examinations and Certificates. 
Assistant Teachers and Pupil Teachers. 
9. Boarding Schools. 
10. Normal Schools. 
11. Government and Administration of the Schools. 
12. Superior Board of Education. 
13. District Boards of Education. 
14. Municipal Boards of Education. 
15. Educational Finances. 
16. Teachers’ Pensions, Promotions and Exemptions. 
17. Police and Religious Practice to be Observed in the Schools. 
18. Schools for Girls. 
19. Rules for the Execution of the Law.’ 


This law was noted for its completeness. It attempted to organize 
elementary education, which was not made compulsory nor free. 


re AED aoa ed a ae 


oe 


‘Luzuriaga, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 185. SIbid., p. 187. 
7 Ibid., pp. 188-230. 8Tbid. 


Education Under Educational Societies (1820-1856) 27 


Schools were divided into three classes: first, those of Madrid and 
capitals of Provinces; second, those established in the districts of 
Madrid and districts of provincial capitals; and third, those of 
towns under five hundred inhabitants. ‘Teachers were required to 
take examinations and have certificates before they could teach. 
Provision was made for teachers’ pensions. On the other hand, the 
law was reactionary. All teachers were compelled to make a pro- 
fession of faith before they were granted their certificates. It is 
needless to say that this was an excellent document, but its provisions 
were never put into operation in Spain much less in Porto Rico. 

Independence of the Spanish Colonies in America. 'The restoration 
of Ferdinand in 1814, followed by his reactionary policies, widened 
the breach between Spain and her colonies. At first the colonies 
did not intend to separate from the mother country, but after the 
restoration they saw that there was no hope of securing any liberties 
under the monarchy, hence they declared themselves in open revolt 
and set out to win their independence. Instead of adopting a con- 
ciliatory attitude toward the colonies, redressing their grievances 
and bringing them once more within the bond of the Empire, Ferdi- 
nand cruelly endeavored to subjugate them by force of arms. Asa 
result all the Spanish colonies on the American continent took up 
arms against the mother country. One by one they won their in- 
dependence and in 1826 the Spanish flag came down forever on the 
mainland of the American Continent. 

Political Conditions in Porto Rico. The political changes in 1820 
and 1823 were made in Porto Rico without any major disturbances. 
Now and then the Porto Ricans manifested signs of opposition to 
the insular authorities and expressed sympathy for the colonies in 
their struggle for independence, but the prompt measures of the Gov- 
ernor, the presence of troops and the small area of the Island pre- 
vented a successful uprising. Porto Rico benefited by the dis- 
turbance in the other colonies in that many Spaniards having to 
emigrate from the Continent found a refuge in the Island, where 
they established themselves and thus contributed to her material 
welfare. 


B. DivipEp ADMINISTRATION UNDER THE ECONOMIC SOCIETY 
OF THE FRIENDS OF THE COUNTRY AND THE PROVINCIAL 
Deputation [1820-1851] 


Attempt to Introduce the Monitorial System into Porto Rico. The 


28 Education in Porto Rico 


establishment of Lancasterian schools in Spain and the educational 
policies of the Liberals had an immediate effect in Porto Rico. With 
the re-establishment of the Constitution of 1812, the Economic 
Society of the Friends of the Country came into its own and began 
its activities in education. Its first attempt was to establish a school 
for the preparation of teachers in San Juan. In the record of the 
session held by the Economic Society on the 17th of August, 1820, 
is related the following: 

It was agreed to open a voluntary annual subscription among the ayuntamientos, 
fathers of families and persons who interest themselves in public instruction, for 
the purpose of establishing in the capital a normal school of mutual instruction, 
bringing a professor from Europe or Havana to prepare teachers, who shall after- 
wards practice their profession in the different towns of the Island.® 
On August 29, 1820, Brigadier General Don Juan Vasco y Pascual, 

the Governor General, sent a communication to the San Juan city 
council, informing that body that the Provincial Deputation had 
passed a provision to open a subscription for the purpose of collect- 
ing funds to establish a school of mutual instruction after the method 
of Lancaster. He headed the list with thirty-two pesos. 

The council welcomed the suggestion of the Governor and ap- 
pointed Don Francisco Tadeo de Rivera and Don Ramén Salgado to 
collect the money and report the result to the Governor.!° Being 
more or less deceived by the reports received from Madrid concerning 
the Lancasterian school there, the people took up the project with 
much enthusiasm. The subscription list soon rose to 1223.25 pesos. 
The Economic Society was commissioned to contract for a teacher. 
The Society wrote to Madrid and sent a draft for 500 pesos with the 
request that a teacher specially trained to teach according to the 
Lancasterian method be secured. 

On the receipt of the draft in Madrid, it was protested on account 
of the failure of the house on which it was drawn. This money was 
lost. The money remaining in the treasury of the Economic Society 
was turned over to the city council and used for municipal expenses. !! 
Thus ended the first efforts to establish a school to prepare teachers 
for the schools of the Island. 

956th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 112. 

10D)on Juan Macho Moreno: Compilacién Legislativa de Primera Ensefianza de la 
Isla de Puerto Rico, pp- 15-16. In this work are compiled all the documents relating 
to elementary education in Porto Rico from 1826 to 1895. As we shall refer to this work 


often, we shall do so, by giving the name of the author, followed by the name of the 


document, and the page. 
Moreno: Escuela Lancasteriana, pp. 15-16. 


Education Under Educational Societies (1820-1865) 29 


Plan of Tadeo de Rivera. In the meantime the city council studied 
ways and means of establishing elementary schools. At this time 
two elementary schools existed in the capital.“ Don Francisco 
Tadeo de Rivera, a school officer of the city of San Juan (Regidor 
Diputado de Escuelas), was asked to work out a plan for the estab- 
lishment of the schools. One month after, September 20, he sub- 
mitted his ““Methodical Instruction upon What Primary School 
Teachers Ought to Observe in the Teaching of Children.” (Instruc- 
cion Metéddica sobre lo que deben observar los maestros de primeras 
letras para la educaciOén y ensefianza de los nifios.)%= This document 
is of the greatest importance, not only because it is the first of its 
class found in the history of Porto Rico, but also because the author 
introduced some of the principles of the Lancasterian school, together 
with the most important precepts of the plan of studies which the 
Liberals were trying to establish in Spain. 

It began by stating that education should be free; the school hours 
six, divided into two sessions, from 8.30 a.m. to 12 m. and from 
2.30 to 5 p.m.; the school year to consist of twelve months, except 
Sundays, legal holidays, three days at Christmas and Easter Week. 
The age for entering school should be six years and the course of 
study should last four years. The curriculum should include the 
elementary study of religion, morals, reading, writing, grammar, 
orthography, arithmetic, politics, manners and the study of the con- 
stitution. It ordered that there should be a general, public examina- 
tion each year; definitely prohibited corporal punishment; and 
recommended the employment of assistants in the direction of the 
school, who should be selected by the teachers from among the best 
scholars. If they were taken from the outside they should be ex- 
amined and approved by the city council. One member of the city 
council was sent to act as inspector, visit the schools once or twice a 
month, and observe the progress of the children. Suggestions to 
parents were included in the plan.“ 

The Fate of the Plan. Unfortunately this was another plan, ex- 
cellent on paper, but which was never realized. It was submitted 
to the city council September 10, 1820. The city council referred it 


256th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 112. 

Moreno: p. 16. 

4Moreno: Instruccién Metddica sobre lo que deben observar los maestros de 
primeras letras para la educacién y ensefianza de los nifios, por Don Francisco Tadeo 
de Rivera. Regidor Diputado de las Escuelas del Excmo. Ayuntamiento de la 
Capital de Puerto Rico. pp. 16-30. 


30 Education in Porto Rico 


to the Governor, September 25, 1820, who in turn submitted it to 
the Provincial Deputation on the 29th of the month.'* The Depu- 
tation approved the plan and recommended its execution until some- 
thing better was provided by the Spanish Cortes. The project was 
printed and distributed to all teachers in the Island. Officers were 
appointed and examining committees selected, but the whole move- 
ment failed and the plan was never put into operation.” 

Early Activities of the Economic Society in Elementary Education. 
The Economic Society, although more interested in secondary edu- 
cation, did not entirely neglect elementary education. In 1820, soon 
after the failure of the plan already considered, the Society tried to 
establish a school for girls in San Juan, and engaged a teacher by the 
name of Vicenta Ehrichson.!8 No record was found of the school 
until four months afterwards when the directress of the school peti- 
tioned the Society to pay four months of house rent. She had been 
ill and not able to open the school. The society voted to pay one- 
third of the rent.!® On October 3, 1821, the Society tried to engage 
a man by the name of Ritten Noven, a teacher of writing, to teach 
his method to the elementary school teachers that these might teach 
it in the Island.2° Nothing is known of the fate of these two move- 
ments. 

In the investigations of the United States government at the time 
of the American occupation, the investigator has the following to say 
in reference to these attempts on the part of the Society: 


The want of resources often prevented it (The Economic Society) from putting 
good ideas into practice. The instruction of girls was something that engaged its 
attention from the first. As far back as the year 1820 the Society tried to make 
arrangements with a Spanish woman who was directing a school for girls in St. 
Thomas to establish herself in the capital. The Society further tried to engage 
another teacher, who, like the first, knew French and English, and was living in 
Santa Cruz; but in the end it was compelled to abandon the idea, owing to lack of 
funds to sustain the school.”! 


Until 1828 the Economie Society was subsidized by the govern- 
ment with one thousand pesos annually and after that with one 
thousand six hundred pesos. This was not a sufficient fund to carry 


15Moreno: Oficio,—Sala Consistorial de Puerto Rico, p. 30. 

6 Jiid., p. 30. 

1Tbid., Acuerdos de la Excma. Diputacién Provincial, pp. 31-32. 

18Libro 1. Minutes of the Economic Society. Coll y Toste, Historia de la Instruc- 
ci6n Piblica en Porto Rico, p. 20. 

197Tbid., p. 20. 

*0Tbid., p. 21. 

156th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 117. 


Education Under Educational Societies (1820-1865) 31 


out any educational programme, nevertheless it was spent in second- 
ary education mostly.” In 1845 the Society paid the expenses of 
six girls in a private school in San Juan, and when this was closed 
they were transferred to another private school.” 

Educational Conditions in 1824. The next record wherein indirect 
information about education in the Island may be found is of the 
year 1824. In a study of the occupations in the Island, both civil 
and military, no school teachers appear in the list, while the doctors, 
merchants and artisans of all kinds are mentioned.** This does not 
prove that there were no teachers, but shows the lack of interest in 
education by not including the teachers in the list of professions. 

Educational Attempts in 1828. The attempts made in 1828 to es- 
tablish schools in the Island throw some light on the educational con- 
ditions at that time: 

About the middle of the year 1828 there arrived in Porto Rico the royal order of 
February 24, in which the Supreme Government asked what means should be pro- 
posed for establishing colleges in the Island. It then contained 302,692 inhabitants, 
and there were in the capital, according to one of the records of the Economic Society, 
only ‘two or three schools, and they did not give any satisfactory results.’ This 
reason, added to the lack of resources for sustaining a college, was the cause of 
abandoning the project.*® 

The uncertainty of the information as to the number of schools “two 
or more” should be noted. 

Conditions in Elementary Education in 1830. The year 1830 fur- 
nishes some official information regarding the state of education in 
the entire Island. At that time the following school statistics were 
sent to the Crown. There were 29 schools in the Island, distributed 
as follows: San Juan, 5; Bayamén, 5; Arecibo, 2; Aguada, 6; San 
German, 3; Ponce, 2; Humacao, 3; Caguas, 3; total, 29.2° The 
salaries of the teachers were partly paid by the city councils.” 


256th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 117. 

3 Tord. 

*4de Cérdoba, Pedro Tomas: Memoria sobre todos los Ramos de Administracién de la 
Isla de Puerto Rico [por el Coronel de Infanteria, Don Pedro Tomas de Cordoba, 
Secretario Honorario de 8. M. y proprietario del gobierno y capitania general de la 
misma Isla]. This report was published in Madrid, (Imprenta de Yenes,) in 1838. On 
pages 284 and 285 we find a list of the professions in Porto Rico in 1824 as follows: 34 
doctors and surgeons; 45 pharmacists; 733 merchants; 3170 artisans. Another list 
gives the military officials. 

56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 113. 

*%de Cérdoba, op. cit., pp. 15-26. The summary of the report gives the following 
statistics: 1 ciudad, 4 villas, 53 pueblos, 5 ayuntamientos, 6 tenientes de justicias 
mayores, 57 tenientes de guerra, 57 sargentos mayores, 29 escuelas de primeras letras, 53 
médicos, 44 practicantes de medicina, 18 agrimensores, 7 intérpretes, 19 escribanos. 

*7de Cérdoba, op. cit., p. 55. Los ayuntamientos difrutan de algunos propios y 


32 Education in Porto Rico 


The Work of the Count of Carpegna. About the year 1830 there 
came to Porto Rico Lieutenant Colonel of Infantry Don Ramén 
Carpegna, Count of Carpegna, who from the beginning took great 
interest in education. Imitating the monitorial system in Madrid, 
he wished to establish a school of mutual instruction, the principal 
object of which was to demonstrate the advantages which might be 
obtained in instruction by following that system. On April 10, 1833, 
his school was opened and two years afterwards, in view of the good 
results obtained, the Economic Society agreed to give the Count an 
“honorable and solemn testimonial of its appreciation for the great 
service which he had done to the Island, in putting its youth in a 
path hitherto unknown to practice.’”? About the same time the schools 
of Aibonito and Patillas were ordered closed by the Governor General 
because no children attended them. In 1830 the general condition 
of education was backward and the few schools in operation 
were badly equipped.?® The Spanish law of 1825 had had no effect 
on the educational conditions in Porto Rico, as it had very little on 
Spain herself. 

The Reign of Isabella II. In 1829 King Ferdinand married Maria 
Cristina of Naples and a daughter, Isabella, was born to the sover- 
eigns the following year. The King was in poor health, and feeling 
the end near, legalized his daughter’s right to the throne, abolish- 
ing by the pragmatic sanction of March 29, 1830 the Salic Law of the 
Bourbon family, which excluded the daughters of the King from 
the throne. This brought upon him the rage of his brother, Don 
Carlos, and gave rise to the Carlist party. The King died and Maria 
Cristina, the mother of Queen Isabella, became regent. Don Carlos 
attracted to his standard the clericals, reactionaries, and the country 
folk from among the mountains of the north. The regent won the 


arbitrios para atender a la policia de comodidad de ornato y salubridad, y los pueblos 
reparten anualmente Jo que necesitan para sus obras y demas gastos fijos de la pob- 
lacién. Estos son el salario del parroco, el del sacristan, maestro de primeras letras, 
gaceta, mantenimiento de presos, luces de carceles y otros de corta entidad; los demas 
son eventuales. 

*8Coll y Toste, op. cit., p. 44. 

*%de Cordoba, op. cit., pp. 64-65. La Instruccién Primaria se halla muy atrasada en 
la Isla, tiene pocas escuelas de primeras letras y estas estan mal dotadas; requiere un 
impulso sélido y constante. El] estudio de las leyes civiles y econdédmicas hace tambien 
notable falta, lo mismo que el de medicina y cirujia tan indespensable en obsequio de 
la humanidad doliente. La Sociedad Econdédmica que mantiene una clase de matem- 
aticas puras y otra de dibujo debe ser la que dé impulso a la Instruccién Primaria; 
el prelado y la audiencia a la parte de estudios mayores, y el gobierno y laintendencia, 
al de cirujia en el hospital militar. S. M. tiene concedido el establecimiento de cAtedra 
de medicina en la isla, y que dos jévenes se instrullan a espensas del Erario en el Colegio 
de Médicos Cirujanos de Cadiz. Porqué no se aprovechara este beneficio!” 


Education Under Educational Societies (1820-1825) 33 


support of the Liberals by the grant of a parliamentary constitution 
in 1837. For seven years after the death of the King there was a 
bitter struggle for the throne, until finally, in 1840, Don Carlos fled 
and Isabella was recognized as the rightful heir. This, however, 
did not end the activities of the Carlists. 

The young Queen was crowned in 1843 and began her stormy 
reign. She lost favor with the Liberals by revising the Constitution 
in a conservative direction and by her constant attempts to rule 
despotically, while at the same time she failed to win the loyal sup- 
port of the Conservatives. Her reign was marked by constant politi- 
cal unrest, no one knowing what political changes a day might bring 
forth. In the meantime the republican doctrines spread among the 
intellectuals, the middle class and the best element of the country in 
general. 

The Educational Law of 1834. The Liberals persuaded Maria 
Cristina to begin to reform education and as a result the law of 1834 
was passed. As this decree applied directly to Porto Rico, its pro- 
visions should be considered somewhat in detail. Three classes of 
school commissions were created for the administration of the schools: 
provincial, district®?® and town commissions. The provincial com- 
mission was composed of the Governor General, one parish priest 
appointed by the Governor where there were more than one, and three 
heads of families. The district*! commissions were composed of the 
president of the city council of the district capital, the parish priest 
and three heads of families. ‘The town commissions were composed 
of the mayor, another member of the city council, the parish priest 
and three heads of families chosen by the city council. 

All three commissions were expected to supervise and encourage 
primary schools and furnish the data required by superior authori- 
ties. Each had, in addition, its own particular duties. The pro- 
vincial commission had general charge of elementary education. Its 
duties were to encourage the establishment of primary schools in 
accordance with the plan of February 16, 1825, and other royal 
orders concerning that plan, to furnish the Central Committee on 
Education in Madrid all information asked for, to execute promptly 
the orders of the government, and to superintend the work of the 
commissions of lower rank. 

The duties of the district commissions were to put into operation 
all orders from higher authority, to secure all information desired by 


30Comisiones de Partido. 31Comisiones de Partido. 


34 Education in Porto Rico 


higher authorities, to make a study of conditions and needs of the 
schools in the district and to establish schools in towns where there 
were none. The duties of the town commissions were mainly to 
supervise the schools in the towns and study means of supporting 
schools wherever the municipalities were failing to do so. Teachers’ 
examinations were to be held before a special commission of teachers 
of both sexes, appointed by the provincial commission.” 

Political and Social Conditions in Porto Rico During the Reign of 
Isabella II. As in the mother country, the political situation in 
Porto Rico was stormy. In 1835 a secret attempt was made to es- 
tablish the Constitution of 1812. This was a sign of what was going 
on in Madrid at the same time. Governor de la Torre exiled the 
persons implicated, and the affair came to an end on the Island. 
However, the change was made in Spain but the corresponding 
political change was not made in Porto Rico until many years after. 

Although no special laws were made for the benefit of Porto Rico 
until nearly a half century after, yet school legislation began in 1838, 
with the application of the Spanish Law of 1834 to the Island. Be- 
sides the political unrest caused by the same condition in Spain and 
which gave rise to much political persecution, in 1855, the Island 
suffered from an epidemic of cholera and smalipox, which caused the 
death of 30,000 persons. All these events contributed to the slow 
progress in education. Nevertheless, interest in popular education 
was manifested and some progress was made. 

The Spanish School Law of 1834 Applied to Porto Rico. The royal 
decree of August 31, 1834, reorganizing the administration of ele- 
mentary education in Spain, was applied to Porto Rico October 21, 
1834. The population of the Island at that time was 358,836 and 
there were fifty-three towns. On that date the Spanish Minister 
of Interior, Don José Maria Moreno de Altamira sent a communica- 
tion to the Governor General of the Island, Miguel de la Torre, in- 
forming him that it was the desire of Her Majesty the Queen that 
the decree of August 31, 1834, with reference to the commissions on 
primary instruction for the Kingdom should include all parts of her 
possessions.*4 

The Law in Practice not Successful. The application of this decree 
to Porto Rico meant that from 1834 on, the Island should have had 


32Moreno: Ministerio del Interior, Comisiones de Instruccién Primaria, pp. 33-37+ 
*3 Moreno: Decreto Organico Vigente, Predmbulo, p. 312; 56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 118- 
’4{Moreno; Comisiones de Instruccién Primara, p. 33. 


Education Under Educational Socteties (1820-1865) 35 


its public schools thoroughly organized in accordance with the plan 
of February 16, 1825, for instruction of Spain, together with the 
changes made by the decree of 1834. As the new law did very little 
for Spain, it also did little for Porto Rico, with the exception of stimu- 
lating the already existing schools. The interest in education in the 
Island was beginning to be manifested, but that interest was ex- 
pressed more in secondary education than in primary education. The 
commissions provided by the law of 1834 were appointed and ordered 
to work, but that was about all that was accomplished. 

A document of May 10, 1838 throws some light on the effectiveness 
of the legislation.** The law of 1834 called for a report on school 
finances, a school census, and a general report on the state of ele- 
mentary education. The provincial commission requested the dis- 
trict and town commissions to return the statistical data to the 
government in San Juan. 

Circulars Revealing the Effectiveness of the Law. On December 20, 
1838, the provincial commission addressed a circular letter to the 
subordinate commissions deploring the lack of accuracy and negli- 
gence or ignorance of the local committees. With reference to the 
work of the commissions, the circular says: 

The attention of the provincial commission has been specially called to the lack of 
accuracy and errors present in the data from certain towns. Some have not re- 
ported one-eighth part of their population according to the last census. Some 
have reported, without distinction, men, women, boys and girls who know how to 
read and write. Some have not distinguished properly between those who know 
how to read and those who know how to write, so that they report the latter as 
many times the number of the former, and although the provincial commission has 
corrected the errors to the best of its ability, it has not been able to report to the 
superior authorities that the information which it sends them is even approximately 
reliable and accurate.*® 
The same circular summarizes the law of 1825 and 1838 and sub- 

mits a plan to be carried out in the schools. In it the government 
urges the need of the improvement of primary education and of co- 
- operation and agreement between the authorities and teachers. It 
urges the town authorities to organize schools according to a good 
system, make arrangements with the teachers as to the plan of in- 
struction, the length of the school session, and the books to be used 
in the schools. All poor children who wish to attend school should 
be admitted free of charge if provided with a permit from the city 
council, which meant that the town would pay the fee. Tuition 


256th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 119. 36 Tbid. 


36 Education in Porto Rico 


should be charged to all pupils able to pay. The establishment of 
rural schools is urged on account of the large rural population.*” 

Plan of Studies for the Island of Cuba and of Porto Rico. After 
1837 Porto Rico and Cuba were supposed to be governed by special 
laws. The first school law of the two islands was published in Havana, 
April 24, 1842.38 This called for the organization of elementary, 
secondary and higher education in the two islands. It was not put 
into operation in Porto Rico immediately, but the decree of 1865 
which will be studied in the next chapter, was based on this law. 
There are two more documents in this period worth mentioning. 
One prohibited the use of corporal punishment, which was being 
used extensively,®® and the other requested the municipalities to 
provide school supplies for poor children who could not afford to 
buy them.‘° 

The Training of Teachers. In spite of the Laws of 1825, 1834 and 
other orders regarding the matter in 1838, the government had not 
yet intervened in the matter of teacher training. A new plan for 
the examination and certification of teachers was adopted April 17, 
1849. The plan says nothing regarding teacher training, providing 
only for the examination of teachers. Spain herself had done very 
little for teacher training before 1838, when her laws were applicable 
to Porto Rico. During this period and before, with the exception of 
those who came from Spain, the teachers prepared themselves as well as 
possible under private tutors, in private schools and in the secondary 
schools and monasteries, the only places where they could study on 
the Island. The Bishop of Porto Rico granted certificates to teachers 
of primary education from as early as 1797 to 1849, when the regu- 
lations on teacher examinations were published by the provincial 
commission. ‘There is no record of any certificates issued between 
1812 and 1817, and between 1820 and 1823. 

It will be recalled that these were periods of intense political un- 
rest in the Peninsula, and of course in all her possessions. As far _ 


37Moreno: Organizacién de Escuelas. Gobierno Superior Politico. Comision 
Provincial de Instruccién Primaria. Circular No. 2, December 20, 1838, pp. 39-42. 

38Zamorra y Coronado, op. cit., Vol. VI, pp. 116 ff. General Plan of Public Instruc- 
tion for the Islands of Cuba and Porto Rico, Havana, April 24, 1842. 

There is a difference of opinion as to the date of this document—See Moreno, Juan 
Macho: Gobierno y Capitania General de la Isla de Puerto Rico. Negociado Poli- 
tico, Seccion 2 p. 62. 

39Moreno: Castigos Corporales. Gobierno Superior y Capitania General de la 
Isla de Puerto Rico, Aibonito 28 de Mayo de 1845, pp. 42-43. 

40Moreno: Material de Ensefianza. Capitania General y Gobierno Superior 
Politico de la Isla de Puerto Rico, 30 de Abril de 1846, p. 43. 


Education Under Educational Societies (1820-1865) a6 


as it is known, the Bishop of Porto Rico in fifty-one years granted 
altogether one hundred and ninety-one certificates. Of these one 
hundred and seventy were to men teachers in elementary education, 
ten to women teachers in elementary education, and eleven to second- 
ary school teachers. Nine of the certificates to women teachers 
were issued between 1840 to 1849, showing the increased interest in 
the education of girls at that time.*! 

Teachers’ Examinations. The plan of 1849 provided for an ex- 
amining board, composed of the provincial commission and two other 
persons of its own choosing. It met twice a year to examine candi- 
dates, namely, in January and in June. All candidates had to apply 
to the Governor General directly, and accompany the applications 
by the birth certificate, showing that the candidate was twenty years 
old; and by a certificate of good moral character and sound political 
principles from the town council and parish priest. Examinations 
were generally oral in the following subjects: Religion, reading, 
writing, arithmetic, school management, and methods. 

The candidate appeared before the examining board, drew by chance 
a certain number of questions from a box, and was requested to answer 
them orally. Great emphasis was placed on grammar and parsing. 
Each candidate had to pay a fee of one peso for each member of the 
examining board, and another of four pesos for the general fund of 
primary education. Candidates were listed according to their ex- 
cellence in the examination. The first members in the list were 
given preference in filling vacancies in the schools.” It is a known 
fact that under this system there was a great deal of favoritism in the 
grading and appointments. 

Classification of Schools According to Municipalities. The interest 
in education by the middle of the century was manifested by the 
order of March 29, 1850, issued by Governor Don Juan de la Pezuela, 
classifying the elementary schools according to the municipalities 
_ and furnishing rules and regulations for the choice of teachers. Schools 
were classified into three classes. First class were those of San Juan, 
Mayagiiez, Ponce, San German, Guayama, Aguadilla, Arecibo, 
Humacao, Caguas and Cabo Rojo. Second class were those of 
Afiasco, Bayamén, Fajardo, Juana Diaz, Manati, Naguabo, Patillas 
and Yabucoa. The third class were all the rest in the Island. The 
~ 4Coll y Toste, op. cit., 66-78. 

42Moreno: Reglamento para Todos los Ex4menes de los Profesores de Instruccién 


Primaria, formado por la Comisién Superior Provincial del Ramo y Aprobado por el 
Exmo. Sr. Captian General, Jefe Superior Politico de esta Isla, pp. 44-47. 


38 Education in Porto Rico 


ordinance provided for schools in sixty-six municipalities.“ No 
mention is made of salaries of teachers, but it is well known each 
pupil paid a fee and the municipality paid for the poor. 

Private Elementary Education. 'The activity of the private schools 
continued. It is probable that the 1830 Report of Pedro Tomas de 
Cérdova refers only to those schools founded and partly supported 
by the municipalities, and that it does not include the private schools 
and the work of the private tutor. ‘The private school-master and 
the private tutor teaching for a livelihood, existed all this time, both 
in Porto Rico and in Spain. The private school prepared the children 
of the wealthy for the secondary schools. The private tutor visited 
the homes, either to prepare for the secondary schools or simply to 
teach the elementary school subjects. The daughters of the wealthy 
generally had a private tutor. 

In the third decade of the nineteenth century, educational estab- 
lishments began to increase. There were several private schools, 
two of which enjoyed a very good reputation.“* Several private 
schools existed in San Juan at the beginning of the year 1850, four for 
boys and two for girls, besides four public schools supported by the 
city council. There were also private schools, although on a smaller 
scale, in San German, Guayama, Ponce, Aguadilla, Humacao, 
Mayagtez, Arecibo, Manati and Caguas.® The private schools and — 
the private tutors contributed much to general culture, especially 
among the well-to-do. But there were also private school masters, 
who, like Rafael Cordero, devoted their energies to the education of 
the poorer and less fortunate classes, while many women conducted 
infant schools, teaching their pupils the catechism and prayers of the 
Church, reading, and some hand work. 

Parochial Elementary Education. According to the practices of the 
Roman Catholic Church, her elementary schools have existed in all 
countries, and especially in those professing that faith. In Porto 
Rico the Church has always been active in education. Her schools 
were generally poorly equipped and badly taught with a curriculum 
confined to the catechism and prayers, reading, writing, and cipher- 
ing, but they were as good as any schools existing during most of the 
nineteenth century. The chief contribution of the Church all through 


48Moreno: Reglamento de los ejercicios para obtener las Escuelas Puiblicas de 
Instruccién primaria, pp. 47-49. 

“56th Cong. S.D. 363, p. 113. 

Tbid., p. 117. 


Education Under Educational Societies (1820-1865) 39 


the Spanish colonial days was in secondary education, which will be 
considered in another chapter. 


Among the most active teachers in the parochial schools were the 
members of the religious order popularly known as “‘Escolapios,” an 
order of school teachers. Their schools began with the elementary 
school subjects and went on with secondary education. The Sisters 
have always had schools for girls, where they attracted not only the 
daughters of the wealthy, but also offered some opportunity for the 
girls from poor families. 


Summary. It is clear that the political situation in Spain and its 
corresponding educational policies had immediate effect on Porto 
Rico, but rather indirectly, and due to the activities of Porto Ricans 
themselves, and not to the application of the Spanish educationa 
laws to Porto Rico. Those laws, applicable to Porto Rico, were not 
put into operation sucessfully. The government delegated much 
of its authority in matters of education to the Economic Society, but 
although this society has been much praised for its interest in popular 
education, its activities were among the privileged few, giving more 
attention to secondary education than to elementary education. 


To a great extent elementary education for the first half of the nine- 
teenth century was left to the private school-master, the private 
tutor and the Church. Generally the pupils receiving an elementary 
education were those whose parents could pay the fees. Neverthe- 
less, after 1838, when the responsibility for education was thrown 
upon the Island, there was an increased interest in public instruction, 
especially during the governorship of Count de Mirasol and of Don 
Juan de la Pezuela. 

The first half of the century closed with an attempt to establish 
schools in every municipality, giving some attention to teachers’ 
qualifications and examinations and placing the responsibility for 
education on the Island. The public function of the Economic 
Society as well as of the Provincial School Commission of 1838 was 
discontinued and the administration of education was placed. on an- 
other body. The sad state of elementary education at the middle of 
the century was not due to lack of good laws, but to failure in execu- 
ting them and tolack of interest and initiative on the part of the mu- 
nicipalities and local commissions. 


40 Education in Porto Rico 


C. EpucATION UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF THE Roya ACADEMY 
oF Bexies Letrres (1851-1865) 


It should be remembered at the outset that the activities of the 
private schools, the parochial schools and the private tutors continued 
during this new period the same as before, but the attention will be 
centered now mainly on official activities regarding public education. 

La Real Academia de Buenas Letras. For the next fifteen years 
the administration of education is delegated to the Royal Academy 
of Belles Lettres. This new body was created on February 20, 1851, 
to administer education in the Island, succeeding the Economic 
Society and the Provincial Commission. The district and local 
commissions continued as before. The reasons for the establishment 
of this new body and its aim are clearly stated in Governor Pezuela’s 
letter to the Madrid Government, February 10, 1851, from which the 
following is quoted: 


Convinced that the encouragement of public instruction and of belles-lettres in 
the island is, first, a duty of the government; second, a matter of public utility, for 
which, by reason of its wealth and progress the island is now prepared, I proposed 
immediately after my arrival to give these matters all the support compatible with 
existing laws. Weighty business has commanded my attention since then and 
obliged me not only to postpone this project, but to submit all matters concerning 
the primary schools to the provincial junta already established, though with the 
reservation that its resolutions should always be submitted to me for my approval. 
This junta, however, composed of four individuals of worthy character, and de- 
voted to the public interest, is not in a position to fulfill its duties. Its members are 
public employees in other departments and have not the time to devote to all 
matters involved in the instruction of youth and to the examination of text books. 
I therefore considered it proper to create another body which would have more 
leisure to devote to the public service. Therefore, sir, I have thought that an 
academy of belles-lettres, which should have for its object the extension of a know]l- 
edge of elegant and pure Castilian, in the whole Island, which should encourage 
local talent with prizes and rewards, and which should serve the government as an 
educational body, or as an executive in directing and furthering the interests of 
public instruction, would confer more benefit upon the country than the junta 
already mentioned. I have therefore devised a constitution for such an academy, 
which is submitted herewith.‘® 


As it would have taken a long time to receive an answer from Spain, 
Governor Pezuela organized the academy and put it to work, Feb- 
ruary 20, 1851, before having received the approval of the Crown, 
which was not received until March 17, 1853.47 The Crown insisted 


46Moreno: Academia Real de Buenas Letras, pp. 53-54. 


*"Moreno: Gobierno y Capitania General de la Isla de Puerto Rico. Negociado 
Politico, Seccion 2a, pp. 62-63. 


Education Under Educational Societies (1820-1865) Al 


that education should conform to the plan adopted for Cuba and 
Porto Rico. 

Duties and Membership of the Academy. ‘The duties of the Academy 
were to issue certificates to teachers after examination, to inspect all 
schools, to make such provisions as seemed advisable for public in- 
struction, to appoint and dismiss teachers, to report to the govern- 
ment upon public schools, to supervise the public institutions of the 
Island, and to encourage by all means the possible development of 
general culture and the fine arts.‘ Neither copy of the statutes nor 
any membership list is available. In addition to the central body 
in San Juan there were corresponding members all over the Island, 
whose qualifications and duties are known. They had to be residents 
of the town for which they were appointed. When in San Juan 
they could be present at the sessions of the Academy. By virtue of 
their membership in the Academy they were members of the ele- 
mentary school commissions of their respective towns. Their duties 
were to superintend the general needs of the schools and to super- 
vise the teachers, both in their private life and in their work. They 
were to report the result of all their observations to the Royal 
Academy.*® In brief, the total administration of instruction during 
these fifteen years was in the hands of the Royal Academy, the chief 
duty of which was to issue orders; the corresponding members acted 
as agents to see that the orders were obeyed. 

Besides the supervising power of the corresponding members, the 
local commissions retained their old powers as defined in 1838. They 
generally neglected their duties, which was the cause of official re- 
minders from the governors.°*° 

School Organization. The organization of the schools during this 
period was that inaugurated March 22, 1850, when the schools were di- 
vided into three classes, according to the importance of the towns.*! 
The plan for Cuba and Porto Rico, promulgated in 1842, should have 
been followed, but was not, both because the Island was not prepared 
for it, and because the distance from Cuba made it impracticable to 
administer the schools from Havana.™ 


48Moreno: Academia Real de Buenas Letras, pp. 53-54. 

49Moreno: Reglamento para los Corresponsales de la Academia de Buenas Letras de 
Puerto Rico, pp. 57-58. 

50Moreno: Visitas a las Escuelas, Gobierno Superior y Capitania General de la 
Isla de Puerto Rico, Diciembre 24, 1858, p. 64. Partes de Visitas, Gobierno Superior 
y Capitania General de la Isla de Puerto Rico, Julio 7, 1857, p. 76. 

5\Moreno: Provision de Escueles, Reglamento, pp. 47-49. 

8Moreno: Academia Real de Buenas Letras, p. 71. 


42 Education in Porto Rico 


Interest in Rural Education. School attendance during this period 
was very poor. The rural districts had no facilities for education, 
and their children had to be sent to the town schools, which were 
generally too far distant. To remedy this condition recommendation 
was made to the towns to establish rural schools. This was not made 
mandatory, the government simply asking the mayors of the towns 
to stimulate the wealthiest rural residents to establish schools for their 
children, and for those of the poorer classes.*3 Very little was ac- 
complished by such advice. 

Teachers’ Certificates. 'The legislation regarding the personnel of 
the schools shows interest in the work of the teacher. The rules 
formulated in 1849 for the appointment of teachers continued to be 
the fundamental rules and regulations which governed the teachers 
during the fifteen years under consideration. Due to the lack of 
women teachers, a special order was issued August 20, 1856, whereby 
any woman who wished to teach reading, catechism and needlework 
was given a certificate, provided a man teacher was employed for 
grammar, arithmetic and writing, which were subjects the women 
teachers did not know.™* Only a slight proficiency in reading was 
required. On the whole this move was beneficial. The girls who 
attended such schools were of the poorer classes and by learning to 
sew they could make a living, which meant more to them than gram- 
mar, arithmetic and writing. 

Teachers’ Salaries and Promotions. Up to this time nothing had 
been done to regulate teachers’ salaries. The teacher received as 
much as he could collect from his pupils, plus whatever he could get 
from the town councils for the poor pupils. Teachers could not devote 
all of their time to school duties because their incomes were so ir- 
regular, uncertain, and not sufficient to provide a comfortable living. 
At this time a forward step was taken in the provision fixing 
salaries of teachers according to the class of the school. In first 
class schools salaries were to be 550 pesos per annum; in second 
class schools, 400 pesos, and in third class schools, 300 pesos. Two 
schools in San Juan were already paying 780 pesos to each teacher, 
and these salaries were allowed to continue unchanged. All poor 
children were to be admitted free of charge, provided it was so recom- 
mended by the local town authorities. 


Moreno: Escuelas, Gobierno Superior y Capitania General de la Isla de Puerto 
Rico, pp. 67-71. 
“Moreno: Autorizacién para ejecer el Magisterio, pp. 71-72. 


’ Education Under Educational Societies (1820-1865) 43 


Teachers were registered according to their years of service, and 
promotion was by seniority in the service. Teachers who wished to 
do so could take special examinations for positions in higher schools. 
The interest of the teachers in their work, and their quality of service, 
were taken into account for promotion into the government service, 
thus opening the way for the best teachers to step from teaching into 
higher government positions, which brought more lucrative returns 
and greater social prestige. Teachers were also permitted to ex- 
change positions without altering their rating in the salary scale.* 
This privilege was later very much abused. 


Rules for the Attendance of Poor Children at School. The poor 
children were to be admitted without charge but these so crowded 
the schools, and so many whose parents could afford to pay attempted 
to enter free under this provision, that the children of the more 
prosperous were driven out. The school buildings were not spacious 
enough to accommodate all who wished to attend. A special order 
was therefore passed regulating the attendance of poor children. In 
the schools of San Juan each teacher was compelled to admit thirty 
poor children. Twenty poor children were allotted to each first 
class school, fifteen to a second class and eleven to a third class school. 
The municipality had to pay extra for each pupil above this number— 
twelve reales a month, or about sixty cents per pupil, in first class 
schools; eight reales in the second class, and four reales in the third 
class, provided the pupil attended at least fifteen days in the month. 
A pupil absent from school a month was dropped and another given 
his place. Pupils had to prove that they were poor and could not 
be admitted without a certificate from the town authorities.” Due 
to the fact that mere babies were sent to school and that some pupils 
were kept there too long, a definite school age was fixed. The child 
had to be seven years old to enter and could remain in school until 
eleven years of age, thus making the school course four years.*® 


Curriculum, Methods of Teaching and Text Books. The curriculum 
during this period comprised reading, grammar, arithmetic, writing, 


5 Moreno: Sueldos, Gobierno Superior y Capitania General de la Isla de Puerto 
Rico, Marzo 7, 1851, pp. 54-57. 

Moreno: Permutas, Gobierno Superior y Capitania General de la Isla de Puerto 
Rico, Enero 12, 1865, p. 78. 

57Moreno: Nifios Pobres, Capitania General y Gobierno Superior Politico de la 
Isla de Puerto Rico, Diciembre 29, 1853, pp. 65-67. 

88Moreno: Edad Escolar, Gobierno Superior y Capitania General de la Isla de 
Puerto Rico, Junio 2, 1863, p. 77. 


44 Education in Porto Rico 


religion and morals.*® Text books written in catechism form were 
generally used. The child learned the answer to the questions, and 
the recitation consisted in repeating the answer when the question 
was asked by the teacher or his assistant. In large schools the older 
pupils were employed as instructors, followmg the Lancasterian 
method of mutual instruction. 

The teachers selected their own text books, often those which they 
themselves had used when children. Some made their own text 
books. Feeling thatit was dangerous to the faith to allow this free- 
dom in the choice of texts, the Church appealed to the Government 
to impose a uniform text in catechism. This was accomplished under 
Bishop Fray Pablo Benigno, October 7, 1859.°° It was also thought 
dangerous to allow the teachers freedom in the choice of readers so 
that toward the end of the period a uniform text in reading was adop- 
ted and made “‘texto Forzoso,’’—a text imposed by force in all educa- 
tional institutions of the [sland, both public and private. 

This text was called “‘Crisol Histérico Espafiol y Restauracién de 
Glorias Nacionales,’ which may be translated Spanish Historical 
Crucible and the Restoration of National Glories.*t Great emphasis 
was also placed on church attendance. Teachers were urged to 
attend church with their pupils and see that they performed the rites 
of the church. Very few of the teachers lived up to this requirement.” 
A great deal of emphasis was also placed upon examinations and 
prizes, and medals were given to stimulate school attendance and 
diligence.® 

Summary. Thus far elementary education in the Island was very 
deficient. It is impossible to have a school system working suc- 
cessfully without well prepared teachers, and no attention had 
been given to the preparation of teachers. Nothing was done for 
school buildings and the teachers generally conducted their classes 
in the largest room of their homes. There was no coordination in 
the school system, each teacher doing what he or she pleased. The 
monitorial system of instruction prevailed in the Island and all 


59Moreno: Reglamento de Exd4menes, Diciembre 3, 1852, pp. 59-60. 

60Moreno: Texto para la Doctrina Cristiana, Secretaria de la Academia Real de 
Buenas Letras, Octubre 17, 1859, pp. 76-77. 

6{Moreno: Lectura, Gobierno Superior y Capitania General de la Isla de Puerto 
Rico, Diciembre 24, 1864, p. 78. 
Moreno: Prdcticas Religiosas. Gobierno Superior y Capitania General de la 
Isla de Puerto Rico, Julio 7, 1857, pp. 75-76. 

8Moreno: Premios en las Escuelas, Gobierno Superior y Capitania General de la 
Isla de Puerto Rico, Diciembre 3, 1852, pp. 56-62. Epocas de Examenes, Gobierno 
Superior y Capitania General de la Isla de Puerto Rico, Octubre 16, 1853, pp. 63-64. 


Education Under Educational Societies (1820-1865) 45 


schools were ungraded. They were divided into sections and one of 
the most advanced pupils was placed in charge of each section. 

The plan of the Academy of Belles Lettres with respect to primary 
education was very incomplete, introducing no far reaching reforms 
in method or organization. The district and local commissions con- 
tinued the same as before. The directors of the Academy, for the 
most part public officials, could not devote much time to public in- 
struction. The Academy from the beginning assumed a different 
character from that intended by General Pezuela, and devoted most 
of its attention to the encouragement of belles-lettres and the fine 
arts. The public schools were neglected by the Academy as well as 
by the districts and local commissions. 

Nevertheless, progress was made. The interest in popular educa- 
tion increased. Some provision was made for poor children and these 
attended to such an extent that their numbers had to be limited. 
Standards of teaching received some attention. Although nothing 
was done for rural education, the needs of the rural population began 
to be studied. There was enough interest to make an inquiry of 
educational conditions throughout the Island. The census of 1860, 
under occupations, reports 459 teachers.“ This number must have 
then included all persons who taught, whether in public schools, 
private schools or secondary schools, and all who professed to be 
teachers. The school census of 1864 gives the following school 
statistics for elementary education: 74 public schools for boys and 
48 for girls, 16 private schools for boys and 9 for girls. 2,396 boys 
attended the schools, of whom 1,315 were poor and 1,081 were paying 
pupils. 1,092 girls attended, of whom 695 were registered as poor 
and 307 as paying students. There were 88 male teachers and 54 
female teachers. The budget for education that year was 35,542 pesos, 
not including the fees of the paying pupils. (Consult Appendix I) 


64War Department, Office Director Census of Porto Rico: Report on the Census of 


Porto Rico, 1899, p. 34. 
656th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 128. Ifigo Abad: Historia de Puerto Rico. Supplement- 


ary notes by José Julian Acosta, p. 305. 


CHAPTER IV 


POLITICAL UNREST AND ATTEMPTS TO ESTABLISH 
A SYSTEM OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 
(1865-1880) 


A. Historica BACKGROUND 


The Spanish Revolution of 1868 and the Republic. The stormy 
reign of Isabella II came to an end with the Revolution of 1868, 
which sent the Queen as an exile to France. The following year a 
new Constitution was adopted. It guaranteed among other pro- 
visions, individual liberties and religious toleration, and provided for 
a monarchical parliamentary régime. After experiencing some diffi- 
culty in securing a King, Prince Amadeo of Savoy, the second son of 
King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy, acccepted the Spanish Crown in 
1870. After vainly attempting to pacify the country he abdicated 
on February 11, 1873. On his abdication a republican form of 
government was instituted under the presidency of Emilio Castelar. 

Political Unrest in the Antilles. Political conditions in the Antilles 
were no less stormy than in the mother country. During the Civil 
War in the United States Spain attempted to regain some of her lost 
possessions in America, taking advantage of the fact that the United 
States was not in a position to enforce the Monroe Doctrine. On 
March 18, 1861, she took possession of Santo Domingo, which she 
had lost in 1821. The people resisted the Spaniards and a war 
followed which lasted four years. In 1865 Santo Domingo was again 
given her independence. Although the Porto Ricans sided with the 
mother country during these four years, yet many people in the 
Island, especially political leaders, did not hesitate to express sympa- 
thy for and offer aid to the people of Santo Domingo. 

The Civil War in the United States and the liberation of the slaves 
in 1863 also gave impetus to the abolutionist movement in Porto 
Rico. Segundo Ruiz Belvis and Dr. Betances urged the granting 
of freedom to the slaves of Porto Rico. This request was further 
pressed by the delegation to Madrid in 1865, which had been called 


(46) 


Political Unrest and the Public Schools (1865-1880) 4a?v 


there to furnish information regarding the need of legislative reform. 
On the return of the delegates from Spain a mutiny in the army was 
the cause for the exile of the leading men in the Island who opposed 
the policies of Spain. Dissatisfaction against the national government 
was brought to a climax by the Insurrection of Lares, September 17, 
1868. The revolution and rise of the Liberals in Spain brought to 
Porto Rico the corresponding changes in government. The Island 
was made a province of Spain and given a provincial deputation and 
representation in the Cortes. The abolutionists secured the libera- 
tion of the slaves in March 22, 1873. In the meantime Cuba had 
declared herself in open revolt against Spain, giving rise to the in- 
surrection of 1868. For ten years she fought bitterly for her free- 
dom, during which time she had the moral support of the Porto 
Ricans. 

Other Misfortunes. In addition to the political unrest the Island 
was called upon to experience other misfortunes. In 1867 the “San 
Narciso” cyclone swept over the Island causing much loss of property 
and suffering among the people. In the fall of the same year the 
Island shook almost constantly for a period of three months. Neuman 
Gandia had the following to say about conditions during the earth- 
quakes: ““There was a general panic among the people due to the 
horrible and continuous earthquakes that ruined many buildings 
and buried under the ruins an infinite number of dwellers. No- 
body lived at home, the people encamped in the public plazas and in 
the streets.”! The conflict between the abolutionists and slave 
owners, plus the political and social disturbances, brought about an 
economic crisis. Many wealthy people left the Island. It is esti- 
mated that about 56,000 persons emigrated, taking with them two 
million pesos to be invested in France, England and Germany. 

General Messina’s Attempt to Reform Elementary Education. In 
the midst of this political, social and economic chaos the Governor 
General tried to establish a system of public instruction. So far it 
cannot be said that Porto Rico had a system of public instruction. 
The nearest that the Island had come to having a system was in 
1842 when the Plan for Public Instruction in Cuba and Porto Rico 
was formulated, but, as already noted, that project was never realized. 
In 1862 Spain sent to the Island as Governor, Lieutenant Don Felix 
de Messina. He is generally remembered for his blood and iron poli- 
cies, his suppression of all liberal political ideas, and his persecution of 


1Gandia, Neuman: Benefactores y Hombres Notables de Puerto Rico, Vol. I, p. 244. 


48 Education in Porto Rico 


the liberal leaders of the day. However, he is also remembered for 
his initiative in improving public education. 

He was the first to formulate a system of public instruction for 
Porto Rico. He tried to intervene in education with the same firm- 
ness with which he intervened in politics. But he was a soldier and 
not an educator. He had more or less an ideal system in mind which 
he wrote on paper, not taking into account the society where he ex- 
pected to apply it. Its lack of adaptability to the educational con- 
ditions of the Island as well as to the economic and political conditions 
prevented its being put fully into operation. However, the law 
which he tried to enforce did have an influence on education and 
should be studied briefly. 


B. Dercreto ORGANICO DE 10 DE JUNIO DE 1865 


The Aim of the Decree. ‘This school law was called Decreto Or- 
gdnico de 10 de Junio de 1865, The Organic Decree of June 10, 1865. 
The aim of the decree may be expressed in Governor Messina’s own 
words: 

Not only that the intellectual progress of these loyal and docile inhabitants may 
correspond to the material progress of the island which is developing rapidly, but 
also that they may be prepared to carry out the plan of studies for the island of 
Cuba, when it will please Her Majesty to apply it to this Island. 

Knowing the political unrest of the day, the struggle of Isabel II 
to hold her crown, the opposition in the Island to the policies of the 
mother country, and the persecutions that accompanied this opposi- 
tion, 1t seems that this move on the part of the government was for 
nationalistic purposes, to manufacture a certain culture submissive 
to the policies of the mother country, to make loyal subjects of 
Spain. Whatever the motives of General Messina were, whether 
those of a benefactor or a politician, nevertheless he saw as a pos- 
sibility of public education that it could be used as a tool to carry 
out the aims of the government. 

Primary Education. Primary education was divided into elementary 
and superior. The first included the following curriculum: Cate- 
chism, elements of sacred history, reading, elements of grammar, 
writing, with emphasis on orthography, elements of arithmetic with 
weights and measures and money values, elements of agriculture, 


*Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico. Gobierno y Capitania General de la Isla de Puerto 
Rico.—Secretaria de Gobierno, pp. 81-82. 


Political Unrest and the Public Schools (1865-1880) 49 


industry and commerce, with special adaptation to the needs of the 
community. 

In communities where this entire curriculum could not be taught, 
the schools were to be known as incomplete schools. Superior in- 
struction,..besides including the curriculum of the elementary school, 
included the first principles of geometry, mechanical drawing and 
surveying, geography and history, especially of Spain, and a general 
outline of physical science and natural history. In girls’ schools, 
agriculture, industry, and commerce, geometry, mechanical drawing 
and surveying, and physical and natural sciences were replaced by 
designing, embroidery and domestic science. Elementary education 
wascompulsory for all Spaniards; superior, optional. The elementary 
school age was from six to nine years and free to all those who could 
not pay.® 

Definition and Distribution of Schools. Public schools were defined 
as those supported wholly or in part by public and charitable funds, 
or other funds destined for public education. Each municipality 
had to establish and support its own schools. All departmental 
seats and all cities of ten thousand inhabitants had to have one 
superior school, other cities of fewer inhabitants could have superior 
schools, provided they first established the required elementary 
schools. Under no circumstances was co-education to be allowed. 
The decree also called for infant schools and schools for adults in 
cities of ten thousand inhabitants or more. Encouragement was 
given to private schools. Special schools for colored children were 
to be established, where particular attention should be devoted to the 
moral and religious instruction of the pupils.* 

Training and Qualification of Teachers. As no system of education 
could be successful without trained teachers, the decree provided for 
a normal school, with a model school for practice teaching annexed 
to it. All elementary school teachers had to pursue the following 
two year curriculum :—Spanish language, with parsing, composition 
and orthography, two years; catechism and sacred history, two years; 
arithmetic, one year; geometry, mechanical drawing and surveying, 
one year; agriculture, one year; theory and practice of teaching 
reading and writing, two years; three semesters of observation and 
practice teaching in the model school. Superior school teachers 


3Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico. Secciédn Primera. Titulo I de la Primera Ense- 
fianza. Arts. 1-9, pp. 82-83. 
4Ibid., Seccién Segunda, Titulo I, pp. 85-86. 


50 Education in Porto Rico 


were to pursue a three-year course, with an additional curriculum, 
and nermal school teachers a four-year course.> All public school 
teachers had to be Spanish citizens, men and women of good moral 
and religious conduct and twenty years of age,® except in case of 
language teachers who could be foreigners, and teachers of incomplete 
schools who did not have to fulfill the academic requirements of the 
law. The latter needed only a certificate of good moral and religious 
character from the local school authorities. 

Appointment and Status of Teachers. All public school teachers 
were to be appointed by the Governor General on recommendation 
from the local authorities. The appointment of private school teach- 
ers had to be approved by the Governor, and they also had to conform 
with the academic requirements of the law. In communities where 
there were incomplete schools, the secretary of the city council or 
the parish priest could act as school teacher. The profession of 
teaching was dignified and held as honorable as any other learned 
profession. Teachers were made government employees and were 
assured of their positions as long as their behavior was satisfactory. 
Their status was rendered stable by a provision that they could only 
be removed from their positions upon just complaint, established by 
due process of law.’ 

Salaries of Teachers. In addition to salaries, which were increased 
materially, teachers were entitled to house rent and to the fees of 
pupils who could pay. The following were the salaries provided by 
the decree :° 


Superior schooiss..) (veya wee.), 0 ula he eee pein 1sDUW Pesos 
Superior school assistants’... ty 08 wane eee eee OOO ame 
First:class primary schools )...../40)..) Sethe 28) COO) a 
Second class primary schools ...............-.... 420 “* 
mPMUUTK EL) es MMMM) Pa ee Eee 
Infant schools. Terr ey eM Uri tie haa CUM Nth 
Adult schools . pete: S00; Tas 


Women were to fae one- ened hese in eis ee men teachers.? 
Administration of Education. The administration of the public 
schools was vested in an insular committee called the Superior Junta 
of Public Instruction, and in local committees in the towns. The 
Superior Junta replaced the Royal Academy of Belles Lettres. It 


®Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Seccion primera, Titulo II, pp. 83-84. 

®Moreno: Seccidn Tercera, pp. 87-89. 

7™Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Secciédn Tercera, pp. 97-99. 

8Moreno: Escuelas Publicas, Secretaria del Gobierno, April 14, 1866, pp. 128-31. 
®Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Seccién Tercera, p. 89. 


Political Unrest and the Public Schools (1865-1880) 51 


was composed of the Governor as president, a palace official as vice- 
president, and twelve members. The former town committees were 
replaced by the local juntas, composed, in the principal towns, of the 
mayor, a superior teacher, a member of the agricultural committee, 
a member of the city council, a priest, and two heads of families. 
In the smaller towns the committee was composed of the mayor, a 
member of the city council, the parish priest and four heads of families. 
The local committees had full charge of the administration and super- 
vision of the schools of the community.!° 

Miscellaneous Instructions. In a number of rules and regulations 
published with the decree, minute details are given as to the functions 
and the working of the primary schools, teachers’ examinations, the 
Superior Junta of Public Instruction and the local juntas. Of these 
rules and regulations the most important are those relating to the 
primary schools. Minute detail is given as to the qualification of 
the locality for the school, the management, the admission of chil- 
dren, length of the school session, punishment and prizes, religious 
and moral instruction, the teaching of the different subjects, and 
examinations."! 

It might be noted here what is said regarding the method of teach- 
ing: 

Primary teachers are permitted to use the methods of simultaneous instruction or 
concert recitation with such modification as may seem best, or they may adopt 
mutual or Lancasterian instruction wherever this seems more desirable, or they 
may combine these two methods, in all cases where individual instruction does not 


seem practicable. All teaching was to be done by text books which were pre- 
scribed by the government and the Church.® 


Such were in brief the provisions of the decree whose principal aim 
was to reorganize thoroughly public instruction. 

Schools to be Established. Following the publication of the decree, 
a number of circulars were issued by the Superior Board of Instruction. 
Of these the most important one concerned the number of schools 
that should be established in each municipality. The local boards 
had been asked to furnish the following information: 


1. Number of pupils of school age (6-13), in each district, reporting males and 
females separately according to the census of 1860. 


10Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Seccién Cuarta, pp. 89-91. 

Moreno: Reglamento para las Escuelas Publicas de Instruccién Primaria Element- 
al, pp. 95-104. 

2Tbhid., Art. 47, p. 100. 

Moreno: Decreto Organico, Seccién Primera, Titulo IV, p. 85. Moreno: Libros 
de Texto, Secretaria del Gobierno, Junio 30, 1866, pp. 140-41. 


U. OF ILL. Lip. 


52 Education in Porto Rico 


@. Area of each district. 

3. Subdivision of each district (barrio) and the population of each “barrio.” 

4. Number of boys assigned to each school, superior, elementary, rural and in- 

complete.4 
From the data furnished by the municipalities, the government 
determined the number of schools corresponding to each municipality. 
There were ordered established 283 schools, 200 of which were in- 
complete, with an annual cost of 85,460 pesos.» (See Appendix II.) 

Inadaptability of the Decree. Even if it had been a model law, the 
decree of 1865 could not have been put into operation under the 
political, social and economic unrest of the times. But the decree 
was as visionary as any other school law which preceded it both in 
Porto Rico and in Spain. It can hardly be thought that it was ex- 
pected to be carried out. There were no teachers to be found and 
such women teachers as there were hardly knew how to read and 
write, if judgment is to be passed upon them by the circular of August 
20, 1856. The decree called for a normal school, but it was not es- 
tablished, and even if it had been established, it had to be run two 
years before it could prepare any teachers who would be qualified to 
teach under the new law. The municipalities objected to those 
features that related to them. Their protest was backed up by the 
teachers as the majority would have lost their positions if the law 
had been put into operation. A series of modifications resulted that 
led to its practical nullification. 

Changes in the Decree. ‘The decree was put into operation July 1, 
1866. Its most successful year was the first, but many modifications 
were necessary before it could begin to function. It will be recalled 
that on January 27, 1866, the government had assigned the munici- 
palities the number of schools to be maintained by each, making a 
total of 283 schools for the whole Island. Legally all the teachers 
in service should have been dismissed, as the qualifications for teachers 
and the character of the schools had been changed. Before the de- 
cree could be carried out, teachers had to be provided. On May 7, 
1866, an order was issued by the Superior Board of Public Instruction 
ordering all elementary teachers to continue in their positions on the 
receipt of a certificate from the government complying with the de- 
cree. ‘The requirements for teachers of superior schools were not 


“Moreno: Estados Triemstrales. Direccién de Administracién local de la Isla de 
Puerto Rico, Julio 21, 1865, p. 143. See Medelo, p. 172. 
1/Moreno: Escuelas Publicas, Secretaria de Gobierno, pp. 128-29. 


Political Unrest and the Public Schools (1865-1880) 53 


changed.!® Provision was also made for the certification of teachers 
for incomplete schools that were vacant, teachers for these schools 
being certified by the municipalities that employed them.!” Still the 
number of teachers was not sufficient, and on October 27, 1866, 
local committees were ordered to hire teachers temporarily to fill 
vacancies. Teachers not having the proper certificates were to 
receive only half of the salary attached to the position.!® 

School attendance was poor during the year and effort was made, 
with some success!® on the part of the government, to stimulate it. 
The municipalities refused to furnish the teachers with residences 
for themselves and families, so that by order of July 24, 1866, the 
Superior Board ordered that “only the building used for school 
purposes should be paid by public funds.’”° 

Educational Conditions in 1867. With those changes the decree 
operated for one year. At the end of the year there were 240 schools 
for boys and 56 for girls, with a total attendance of 10,081 pupils of 
both sexes, at a total expense of 89,280 pesos. Of the total number 
of pupils, 6,144 were registered as poor and 3,937 as paying students. 
The total budget does not include the fees of those who could pay. 
In order to appreciate the effect of the decree during the first year, 
the statistics of 1864 should be kept in mind.”! 

Opposition to the Decree. ‘The progress of the decree ended with 
the first year. Opposition was too strong for it to succeed. The 
municipalities first manifested opposition by trying to interfere with 
the duties of the local committees,” that is, to force the committee 
to employ teachers from any part of the Island. As all that was 
required of these teachers was a certificate from the local committee, 
the local committee insisted on employing only those persons of the 
community who were known to them.” More or less influenced by 
the municipalities, the committees themselves opposed the decree 
and showed their opposition by passive resistance or refused to obey 


Moreno: Escuelas y Maestros, Junta Superior de Instruccién Publica de la Isla 
de Puerto Rico, Mayo 7, 1866, pp. 132-135. 

Moreno: Certificados de Aptitud, Junta Superior de Instruccién Piiblica de la Isla 
de Puerto Rico, Julio 17, 1866, p. 142. 

18Moreno: Sueldos. Junta Superior de Instruccién Publica de la Isla de Puerto 
Rico, October 27, 1866, p. 150. 

19Moreno: Asistencia de nifios a las Escuelas, Junta Superior de Instruccién Publica 
de la Isla de Puerto Rico January 8, 1867, pp. 151-152. 

20Moreno: Casa, Junta Superior de Instruccién Publica, July 24, 1866, p. 147. 

21Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico Vigente, Predmbulo, p. 314. (See Appendix I). 

2Moreno: Atribuciones de las Juntas, p. 149. 

Moreno: Certificados de Aptitud, p. 142. 


54 Education in Porto Rico 


the orders of the government.** On October 24, 1867, the government 
ordered the local authorities to compile a census of all children be- 
tween the ages of eight years and fourteen.” In May of the next 
year the local authorities were reminded of this request and were 
again ordered to comply with the orders of the government.”> The 
municipalities which did obey the orders of the government sent 
reports which were carelessly made, incomplete and full of mistakes.’ 
Again and again they were reminded of their duties without satis- 
factory results.”® 

The municipalities also manifested their opposition to the decree 
by refusing to pay the house rent of the teachers, by refusing to sup- 
port all of the schools, by petitioning the government to order some of 
the superior schools closed, and to reduce the salaries of the teachers, 
which were considered too large,?® by holding in arrears the salaries 
of teachers and by refusing to provide the schools with equipment.*° 

A circular of the government, dated June 30, 1869, has the follow- 
ing to say regarding the local boards: ‘““Many municipal corporations, 
in fact a majority of those in the Province, are proved by the innumer- 
able papers filed in explanation of their neglect, to have seldom com- 
plied with the orders of the government, and to have opposed its 
wishes. The apathy and systematic opposition of those who believe 
that municipal responsibility does not imply scrupulous veracity and 
observance of duty in matters of public instruction should be demon- 
strated by facts and figures. If we are to take, however, authentic 
unofficial testimony, there are towns that are fully as backward in school 
matters at the present time as before the reforms introduced by the 
decree of the 10th of June, 1865. It would be a long story to enumer- 
ate all the causes of this lamentable condition. ‘The most important, 
however, as the government is frank in stating, is the absolute lack 
of true patriotism and civic spirit on the part of some local juntas 
charged with the supervision of public instruction, and the proved 
negligence of many teachers who, after securing their certificates, 
treat their positions much as commercial appointments, being per- 


24Moreno: Compare pp. 145, 147, 149, 150. 

Moreno: Estadistica, Octubre 25, 1867, pp. 150-59. 

26Moreno: Asistencia a las Escuelas, May 2, 1868, p. 160. 

27Moreno: Estados, February 5, 1869, p. 165. 

28Moreno: Compare documents in pp. 160-170 inclusive and pp. 184-185. 
29Moreno: Rebaja de Sueldos, Junio 9, 1868, pp. 161-65. 

30Moreno: Pagos, Enero 15, 1871, pp. 182-83. 


Political Unrest and the Public Schools (1865-1880) 55 


mitted to do so through the lack of interference on the part of the 
authorities immediately over them.’”! 

Opposition from the Teachers. The opposition came not only from 
the municipalities, but from the teachers themselves. The new law 
meant very little to them, because they were having difficulty in 
collecting any salaries at all, their house rent was not being paid and 
they had nothing to gain from the law, but much to lose. According 
to the law the new reform was gradually to replace them by younger 
teachers, graduates from a normal school; the law also demanded an 
examination in case any teacher wished to be promoted to the position 
of superior teacher. Being losers in all respects the teachers effectu- 
ally opposed the law by passive resistance to the provisions of the 
decree. The greatest opposition came from the women teachers who 
were more poorly prepared than the men. 

Influence of the Opposition on the Execution of the Decree. The 
result of such opposition was the practical nullification of the decree 
by orders from the government. ‘The first victory for the munici- 
palities came when the government yielded to the protest of the 
municipalities in refusing to pay the house rent of the teachers, and 
ordered that “‘the public welfare demanded that there should be 
provided a suitable and commodious room for the schools, to be paid 
for from the public funds, and not a residence for the teacher and his 
family.’*? The greatest blow to the decree came two years after 
when the appropriation for the rent of school houses and salaries 
of teachers was decreased, with the exception of rural school 
teachers; when many schools were suppressed, among them all 
adult schools, and when assistants in superior schools were discon- 
tinued. The salaries provided for were as follows: 


Superior schools. .................0...02+-+.+--1000 pesos 
First class primary schools ..................... 500 a 
Second class primary schools................... 390 sf 
aneomplete schools'!) (4. “iy. We alee eee wen lis oe 2 180 ees 


Inspection. A system of inspection was attempted. On October 
19, 1867, a decree was issued by Governor General Marchesi, creat- 
ing a system of general inspection of public instruction. The decree 
was approved by royal order of June 25, 1868. It was complete and 
gave minute details of the qualifications, duties and method of the 
inspectors. Two inspectors were named, Don Vicente Fontan and 
eet Arend: Memoria y Visitas, Junio 30, 1869, pp. 167-68. 


Moreno: Casa, Julio 24, 1866. 
Moreno: Rebaja de Sueldos, Casas, June 9, 1868, pp. 161-65. 


56 Education in Porto Rico 


Don Federico Asenjo.*4 Nothing is known of the work of these 
gentlemen. The system of inspection was changed October 10, 
1872, when Don Adolfo Babilonia, a primary school teacher, was 
named general inspector. Inspection remained in the hands of the 
local committees, which were frequently reprimanded on account of 
their neglect of duty. In 1873 Don Jose Francisco Diaz was appoint- 
ed general inspector and his visit of inspection through the Island 
was announced, but that was the last heard about him*® until he was 
removed. Nothing is known of the work accomplished by the in- 
spectors. All the members of the Superior Junta had also powers of 
inspection.*® 
Education After the Revolution of 1868. After the revolution of 
1868, the policy of decentralization was extended to the Island, the 
municipalities gained more and more powers, until municipal autono- 
my was established in 1873 at the beginning of the republican form 
of government in Spain. The municipal system allowed the munici- 
palities full authority in questions of education. But the munici- 
palities were not prepared to handle their own affairs in education, 
as can be judged from their opposition to the 1865 decree, and from 
the activities of the municipalities in education as they gained more 
power. ‘They removed and employed teachers, and established and 
suppressed schools indiscriminately.*7 At last General Rafael Primo 
de Rivero intervened and defined the powers and duties of the munici- 
palities in matters of education, under the new system of decentraliza- 
tion. This came late and there was not time to try its provisions 
before changes in the Spanish government brought about changes in 
the insular government.*® | 
Summary. The educational progress made under the decree can 
well be determined from the facts already considered. In June of 
1869 there were 313 schools, with an attendance of 8,129 pupils, or a 
loss of 1,952 pupils from the attendance in 1867. The public expendi- 
ture for school maintenance that year was 88,136 pesos, or 2,697 
pesos less than two years before.*® Political, social and economic 
conditions rendered progress impossible. 
There were during the period nine governors, each one with a 


34Moreno: Inspection, Octobre 19, 1867, p. 190. 

Moreno: Visitas de Inspection, Julio 7, 1873, p. 191. 

36Moreno: Inspectores, Julio 24, 1873, p. 191. 

37Moreno: Reformas de 1874, p. 204. 

38Moreno: Atribuciones de los Ayuntamientos, Octubre 27, 1873, p. 192. 
39Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico de 1880, p. 314. 


Political Unrest and the Public Schools (1865-1880) 57 


different policy and obliged to act in accord with events in Madrid, 
which could not have been more unfavorable. The decree was good 
and complete, but impossible of application in a society not prepared 
for it, and where public opinion was against its operation. School 
organization continued as before; school teachers continued the same 
in preparation and efficiency; no improvement was made in school 
buildings; refusal to pay rent for teachers’ residences meant that 
they would live with their families in the same house rented for 
school purposes; teachers’ salaries increased in law and decreased in 
practice, for the teachers had difficulty in collecting them. 

After the decentralization, the municipalities did not have enough 
time to try out the new policies before a change came. Had they 
had time, some municipalities might have improved conditions, but 
the majority would not have done any better than under the central- 
ized system, and perhaps worse for their activities in education, 
with few exceptions, were anything but creditable. 


C. Tuer RESTORATION AND REFORMS OF GENERAL SANZ 


The Restoration and Reaction. With the fall of Castelar as Presi- 
dent of the executive of the Spanish Republic in January 2, 1874, the 
republican government of Spain ended. It is true that in name the 
Republic continued until the Restoration, but the government of the 
Peninsula was a military dictatorship from January 1874 to Decem- 
ber of the same year, when General Martinez Campo proclaimed 
Alfonso XII the rightful ruler of Spain. The young King assumed 
the reins of government January 14, 1875. The policies of the mili- 
tarists were very different from those of the Republicans. In Porto 
Rico the popular Governor, D. Rafael Primo de Rivera, was replaced. 
by D. José Laureano Sanz, who had been Governor of the Island in 
1869, and who distinguished himself by his political persecutions. 

The home government, fearing that the liberties enjoyed by the 
natives during the period of the Republic might ultimately lead to 
the loss of the colony, adopted repressive measures with orders to 
restore the former political organization. On his arrival the new 
Governor dissolved the Provincial Deputation, checked the powers of 
the municipalities, censured the press, interfered with the freedom 
of speech, and filled all positions with officers in sympathy with the 
government. He discontinued the Civil Institute, the most popular 
educational institution of the Island, established the year before.*° 


40See Chapter on Secondary Education. 


58 Education in Porto Rico 


Educational Aim of the Government of the Restoration. 'The educa- 
tional policy of the restoration government is distinctly set forth m 
the circular of the Minister of Ultramar," January 26, 1874. To 
quote in part from that document: 

The new government, which has taken charge of the destinies of the country at 
such a critical time, considers among its most noble duties to watch with care the 
progressive, prudent and solid development of education in the provinces of Ul- 
tramar. . .I charge Your Excellency to try by all means possible that all teachers in 
that province, in their respective spheres, support and promote the policies of the 
government, and that you place and maintain in office teachers of the qualifications 
already named, who are able to inspire and implant deeply in the souls of the young 
the satisfaction that results from exact execution of duty, from respect for the 
principles of authority and especially the authority of the fatherland, ‘Patria.’ 
At the same time, I pray you to make all teachers understand that the govern- 
ment of the Metropolis is ready to reward all those who, inspired by high and sacred 
motives, fulfill their mission as instructors of the young; while on the other hand the 
government is also ready to punish with all rigor all those who because of negli- 
gence, malice, or any other cause fail to live up to their high calling.” 


The mission of the teacher and living up to his high calling meant 


here to subscribe unconditionally to the orders of the government, 
as it is seen in the following quotation from the same document: 


You will see that under no pretext whatever do teachers stimulate the spirit of 
dissension, nor encourage the vertigo of fatal and pernicious political views. 


The Activites of Governor Sanz. Governor Sanz was just the man 
to carry out such orders. He demanded of the municipalities a report 
on whatever action on education had been taken by them during the 
season of municipal autonomy, a complete record of all teachers, 
their preparation, qualifications, past record and, above all, political 
views; how they had entered the service and whether they had been 
transferred and promoted; what schools had been established by 
the municipalities and under what conditions and regulations. By 
the same document, all teachers appointed, transferred or promoted 
against the provision of the 1865 decree were thereby dismissed and 
all schools not established in accord with that decree were to be closed. 

In the meantime all vacancies in the schools were to be filled by 
teachers of good moral character who enjoyed the confidence of the 
government. All teachers who had been unlawfully removed by 
the municipalities were to present their complaints and make applica- 


“Ministry of Oversea Possessions. 
“Moreno: Reformas de 1874. Disposiciones del General Sanz, Puerto Rico, 13 de 
Febrero de 1874, p. 205. 


Political Unrest and the Public Schools (1865-1880) 59 


tion for reappointment.“ Such an order meant that all teachers 
were to be dismissed and their places filled by those who had earlier 
lost their positions because of their conservative political views. 

Inspection Suppressed and Teachers Removed. 'The next act of the 
Governor was to do away with the existing inspection. The general 
inspector was dismissed and the plan of inspection of 1867, under 
the 1865 decree, was re-established, but no inspector was named.“ 
In order to remove all the teachers from the schools, the Governor 
ordered the full execution of the 1865 decree and following rules 
and regulations.® As the teachers then in the service had not had 
the privilege of a normal school education, because there was none, 
and had not secured their positions in accordance with the decree 
and following regulations concerning the same, but had been appointed 
by the municipalities, it meant that all of them would be removed, 
and so it happened later. 

Spanish Teachers for the Island. 'The aim of the Governor was to 
import teachers from Spain for the public schools of Porto Rico. 
Already he had intimated this to the government in Madrid. On 
February 25, 1874, he had written the Minister of Ultramar thus: 


It would be convenient to have a sufficient number of well trained teachers, who 
are completely Spanish in sentiment, to inculcate in the pupils the most healthy 
Christian and moral maxims, specially to teach them to love the fatherland so that 
they may grow to be loyal subjects of Spain, good citizens and fathers able to support 
their families. As there are not in the Island all the teachers needed, let me suggest 
that if it is pleasing to you this opportunity be brought before the Spanish teachers, 
who, having the qualifications, would like to be transferred to the Island, where 
many schools will be left vacant.“ 


Porto Rican Teachers Falsely Accused and Dismissed. 'Two months 
and a half later, the Porto Rican teachers had been dismissed for 
the most part and another communication went to the home govern- 
ment so informing. At that time Governor Sanz said: 

Most of the teachers, some on account of their radical and autonomistic views, 
others on account of their doubtful morality, some of whom are affiliated with vari- 
ous secret societies, and because of their hostile sentiment to the Spaniards, which 
they unfortunately transmit to their pupils, are sowing a seed pernicious to the future 


welfare of the province and the fatherland, the bitter fruits of which are already being 
reaped in the sister Antilla (Cuba). Ihave therefore directed as a political measure 


Moreno: Reformas de 1874, Disposiciones del General Sanz, Puerto Rico, 13 de 
Febrero de 1874, pp. 206-207. 

“Moreno: Inspeccién. Decreto, Puerto Rico, 20 de Febrero de 1874, pp. 207-208. 

“Moreno: Provisidn de Escuelas por Oposicién Decreto, Puerto Rico, 25 de Febrero 
de 1874, pp. 209-210. 

“Moreno: Resoluciones adoptadas, 25 de Febrero, 1874, p. 209. 


60 Education in Porto Rico 


of the highest importance that all teachers be removed from the schools wpon the 
ground that their antecedents and reprehensible conduct renders them unworthy of 
the noble and lofty mission entrusted to them, especially when, with rare exceptions, 
none of them have entered into the service by competitive examination, or by 
legal procedure as required by the existing laws. I have already called your attention 
to the urgent need of teachers from the peninsula whom we can put in charge of 
most of the schools that will remain vacant. Moved as I am by the desire to keep 
this Island united to Spain, again I urge upon you the same need. That union 
depends principally on the teaching given in the schools, as out of them will come 
good or bad Spaniards, according to the doctrine taught to the young by the teachers.” 
It was the intention of the government to give the best paid schools 
to the Spanish teachers, so that they might be able to profit by the 
transfer. 

The main concern during the rest of the period, up to 1880, when 
a new school law was put into operation, was the appointment, 
transfer and resignation of teachers. When the 1865 decree was 
put into operation again it was not so much a question of what should 
be taught as of who should teach. The feeling between the Governor 
and the natives was bitter. Even the most conservative in the Island 
who supported the government began to feel that the measures of 
the Governor were too severe. The Spanish government hesitated 
at first to comply with the demands of the Governor, but at last 
yielded, due to the fact that the children were out of school or taught 
by teachers who were chosen because of their political affiliations 
and not because of professional fitness. 

Appointment of Teachers. On August 31, 1874, the Madrid govern- 
ment published a list of the schools vacant in Porto Rico and called 
upon teachers who wished to apply for them to present their qualifica- 
tions.*® On October 15 of the same year, Governor Sanz did the same 
for the Island, having been convinced by this time that he should 
give an opportunity to the Porto Rican teachers. He delayed his 
action as long as possible to give every chance to the Spanish teachers.*9 
It was not until November 3, 1874, that the first teachers were ap- 
pointed in Madrid. On that date the appointment of thirty-one 
men and eighteen women teachers was published.*°° The teachers 


47Moreno: Remisién, 12 de Mayo de 1874, pp. 211-12. 

48Moreno: Concurso, publicado en Madrid, Ministerio de Ultramar, Secretaria 
General, Madrid, 31 de Agosto de 1874, pp. 213-14. 

*9Moreno: Cablegrama, al Ministro de Ultramar, Porto Rico, Oct. 13, 1874, pp. 
214-15. 
; Moreno: Provision de Escuelas por Concurso, Puerto Rico, Oct. 15, 1874, pp. 215- 
6. 

5°Moreno: Nobramientes, Puerto Rico, Noviembre 2, 1874, pp. 217-19. 


Political Unrest and the Public Schools (1865-1880) 61 


named were supposed to take charge of the schools in fifteen days,” 
but many of them failed to do so as they had to come from Spain. 
The year 1874 went by with few schools open, and those were in 
the hands of political appointees specially recommended by the con- 
servative party, whose influence was then all powerful. All of these 
teachers, with a few exceptions, were appointed temporarily.” It 
has been the practice in Spain to regard teachers as government 
officials, permanently appointed to positions from which they could 
only be removed by due process of law. Most of the teachers ap- 
pointed during the period under consideration were temporary 
teachers, liable to lose their positions or to be transferred at any 
moment. 

Disadvantages of Spanish Teachers and More Recognition of the 
Native Teachers. The qualifications of the Porto Rican teachers and 
the reasons for their failure to receive appointment were investigated 
by the Madrid government in April 1875, after the Restoration.® 
No other appointments were made until July 5 and 6, 1875, when 152 
teachers were either given schools or were placed on the waiting list 
to fill vacancies. These included both Spanish and native teachers.* 
The appointments continued all during the period. After 1876, 
when a new governor had been named, he was ordered to hold ex- 
aminations for teachers in the Island, as it was not practicable to 
continue to import teachers from Spain. The Spanish teachers took 
many risks in making the voyage and, after their arrival, in getting 
used to the climate. 

The royal orders and decrees on education during this period show 
that many of the teachers, especially women, appointed in Madrid 
never came; others came, were displeased with conditions, and being 
able to do better at home, resigned and left soon after their arrival; 
still others arrived, became ill, and returned home on leave of ab- 
sence. Those on leave of absence hired substitutes to keep their 
schools open and paid the substitutes half of their salaries.°° Most 
of the teachers were nominated by election, since the Spaniards 
were the first ones who refused to submit to competitive examinations. 


51Moreno: Posesién, Puerto Rico, Noviembre 7, 1874, p. 220. 
Moreno: Interinidades, Ministerio de Ultramar, Madrid, Marzo 24, 1874, p. 223. 
583Mforeno: Maestros no Colocados, Al. Exemo. Sr. Ministro de Ultramar, Puerto 
Rico, 27 de Abril de 1875, pp. 223-24. 
_ Moreno: Nombramientos de Maestros, Puerto Rico 30 de Julio, 1875, pp. 225- 
27. 
Moreno: All documents entitled Nombramientos in pages 227-32. 
“Moreno: Maestros con Licencia, Puerto Rico, 29 de Noviembre, 1878, p. 238. 


62 Education in Porto Rico 


Some of the town councils found fault with the efficiency of the Span- 
ish teachers to the extent that two of them were dismissed for in- 
efficiency. The government then replaced them in their former 
positions, an act which widened the breach between native officials 
and Spanish teachers, and between Spanish and Porto Rican teach- 
ers’? which had already been manifested. The Porto Ricans felt 
that partiality in pay and treatment was shown to Spanish teachers 
who had received their appointments by royal order.*® 

Rules Governing Private Schools. Governor Sanz not only inter- 
fered with the teachers of the public schools but also decreed rules 
and regulations governing the teachers in the private schools. All 
private schools were ordered to be closed and their re-opening was 
prohibited without a permit from the government. No more private 
schools could be established without authority of the Governor. 
Only Spaniards and those Porto Ricans who had distinguished them- 
selves for loyalty to the government were permitted to teach in the 
private schools. 

All text books used in the private schools had to be approved by 
the government, and all private schools were placed under the im- 
mediate supervision of the government and local committees of public 
instruction.6? The decree brought the private school pupils under 
the same teachers as those of the public schools, that is, those approved 
by the political machine. The wealthy who patronized the private 
schools could not avoid the high hand of the Governor, nor could 
teachers, left without positions for political reasons, establish schools. 

Text Books. The text books used by all the schools were those 
sanctioned by the government. More than that, the teachers were 
compelled to teach what the books said, which were supposed to be 
*“‘as authoritative as or more so than the teacher.’’®° The text book 
question was abused greatly, as those teachers who enjoyed the favor 
of the government wrote text books and had the government sanction 
them. The educational value of the text book was not taken into 
account, but the political influence of the author to have the govern- 
ment or the Church declare the books lawful was what counted. 

Remuneration of Teachers. Each teacher received a salary plus 


57Moreno: Reposicién, Gobierno General de la Isla de Puerto Rico, Secretaria, 
Puerto Ricc, 20 de Deciembre de 1878, pp. 244-48. 

583Moreno: Moneda Oficial, Puerto Rico, 14 de Febrero de 1877 pp. 123-34. 

59Moreno: Ensefianza Privada, Decreto, Puerto Rico 8 de Enero de 1875, pp. 
220-21. 

6°Moreno: Libros de Texto, Pureto Rico, 18 de Enero de 1875, pp. 221-23. 


Political Unrest and the Public Schools (1865-1880) 63 


two allowances for rent and school supplies. For example, D. Ga- 
bino Nufiez y Lopez was appointed to the school of Vega Baja by 
royal order of January 24, 1876, with a salary of 2500 pesetas, 500 
pesetas for rent, and 125 pesetas for school supplies.“ It is a known 
fact that many teachers took the money, rented a house for school 
purposes as well as a residence for himself and family, and bought 
as few school supplies as possible, which were in turn generally sold 
to the pupils, a practice which still prevails in many places in Spain. 

Educational Conditions in 1878. Education under the conditions 
related could not prosper very much. General Sanz was followed 
by two other governors, who, although more liberal, did not do much 
to improve educational conditions. In July, 1878, a new governor 
was sent to the Island, Governor Eulogio Despujols. He made a 
visit of inspection to the schools and devoted his attention mainly 
to the reorganization of education. One of his first acts was to 
order the municipalities to furnish the government with statistics 
showing the number of boys and girls between six and fourteen years 
of age. On his arrival the Island was reported to have 731,648 in- 
habitants, 368 schools attended by 12,144 children of both sexes, at 
an annual cost of 129,457 pesos. He compared that with the state 
of education in 1867, and said with regard to the failure of the decree 
of 1865, “Upon investigation of causes that in 1868 nullified the good 
effects of the Organic Decree, I have become convinced that the chief 
among them was the fact that its underlying principles, although ap- 
preciated by the more intelligent element of the population, were 
not understood by the masses in general. Perhaps there should have 
been a period of preparation; that a persuasive and authoritative 
voice should have been heard as the precursor of the coming reform; 
that before being put into operation its necessity should have been 
repeatedly enjoined upon the people, until at last the teaching body, 
the general public and the corporations under whose control it had 
to be carried out would have been so thoroughly convinced of its 
value and necessity as to have been willing readily to accept the eco- 
nomic burdens it imposed. They should have established a system 
of inspection that from the first day would have insisted on the full 
execution of the law.’’® 

General Despujol Begins His Educational Activities. General Des- 


61Moreno: Nombramientos en Propriedad, Puerto Rico Feb. 13, 1876, p. 228. 
®Mforeno: Relaciones de Nifios. Puerto Rico 23 de Agosto de 1878, p. 237. 
Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico Vigente, Preambulao, p. 316. 


64 Education in Porto Rico 


pujol tried also to have the teachers assured of their positions and 
secured permanent appointments to all worthy teachers who had 
only temporary appointments. He even refused to take schools 
away from teachers who were doing satisfactory work, in order to 
place the ones appointed by the government at Madrid. He also 
tried to improve the salaries of teachers, especially rural teachers, 
who were receiving only fifteen pesos a month. He re-established 
competitive examinations for superior school teachers, but not 
for the elementary schools, because there were not enough teachers 
well prepared, and he would not have been able to fill all the vacan- 
cies had he insisted on the required competitive examination.“ 
He appropriated 5,000 pesos for school supplies, which were almost 
entirely lacking at the time.® He divided the Island into two dis- 
tricts, north and south, and appointed an inspector for each of them.® 
Moreover, he tried to prepare public opinion so as to be able to re- 
organize public instruction on a new basis which he was preparing 
and which will receive attention in our consideration of the next 
period.” 


D. CoNpDITION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN 1880 


The period under discussion ends with the year 1880. As to the 
educational conditions in the Island at that time, the official reports 
of the inspectors and of the governor speak for themselves. In 
June, 1880, there were 328 public schools for boys and 104 for girls, 
a total of 432 public schools, with an attendance of 15,218 pupils, 
10,736 boys and 4,482 girls; at a total expense of 191,158 pesos. 
(See Appendix IV.) 

Bobadilla’s Report. As to the teachers and their work, D. José 
Bobadilla, inspector of the northern district, has the following to say: 


As to teachers, no specified scholastic requirements were enforced. What was 
the qualification necessary to teach in schools of the lowest class? A simple state- 
ment of fitness and good character, issued by the local junta and approved by the 
governor-general. He who could simply read, write and teach the catechism satis- 
fied the legal requirements of a teacher. It is true that some of the juntas in prin- 
cipal towns, whose membership included the superior teacher, demanded a strict 


wat HT Le ovals} We) 

®Moreno: Material, Puerto Rico, 4 de Febrero de 1880, p. 254. 

®Moreno: Inspeccion. Decreto, Puerto Rico 20 de Enero de 1880, pp. 251-54. 

Moreno: Inspeccion, Nombramiento del Inspector distrito Norte, Puerto Rico, 1 

de Abril de 1880. 

Moreno: Inspeccion, Nombramiento del Inspector para el Distrito Sud, Puerto Rico, 
Aibonito, 3 de Septiembre de 1880. 

*Moreno: Primera Ensefianza, Puerto Rico 12 de Junio de 1880, pp. 256-59. 


Political Unrest and the Public Schools (1865-1880) 65 


fulfillment of the requirement that applicants for teachers’ positions should be 
examined. Most of the other school boards, however, dispensed with this en- 
tirely. Moreover section 7 of the regulations issued by the superior junta in May 
7, 1866 required that the comisarios of the barrios should be given the preference in 
appointment for the schools thereafter established, and the sixth section of the 
same regulations authorized the appointment of any neighbor of good repute to 
these positions. 

These rules were made because of the commendable desire to extend the school 
privileges to the largest number possible, but have had virtually the opposite effect 
since the discretional authority granted to the juntas has been exercised, not for the 
purpose of helping the schools, but for protecting their own unqualified protégés. 
What practical benefit could result from placing at the head of the school an in- 
dustrious and honorable man without any scholastic qualifications, without the 
slightest notion of how to teach, without any code of rules to follow, and without any 
direction or supervision. 

In these incomplete schools, with a few very rare exceptions, the three or four or 
five poor children that attended them learned by heart part of the catechism and 
the epitome of grammar; they added, subtracted, multiplied and divided whole 
numbers with considerably less certainty than the arithmetic table then popular in 
the island; they were ignorant of numerical notation, and reading, and they wrote 
poorly, so that it is easy to see that no great benefit was to be derived from the few 
days instruction they received before leaving the school.* 


Infiesta’s Report. Mr. Alejandro Infiesta Garcia, inspector of the 
southern district, has the following to say: 


These establishments for popular instruction were rather a burden than a benefit 
to the people. Statistics, although incomplete and full of errors, as was natural 
under the conditions under which they were gathered, prove this fact. There was 
not a single person who could read or write found in most of the barrios where there 
were these incomplete or temporary schools. These were known as rural schools and 
fixed by law in a single place, after the first visit of inspection made at the time of the 
publication of the decree of 1880. What a dark and lamentable picture these schools 
presented. I who know the endeavors of the government to place public instruction 
upon a worthy basis that would offer a guarantee of real results, and its desire to 
provide for the independence and security of the teacher, I, who believe and have 
always believed that the inspector should not be an unpopular agent of the govern- 
ment, but a source of inspiration; not an instrument of correction, but an energetic 
defender of the teacher who should fulfill his duties and work earnestly for those who, 
in the isolation of the distant barrios consecrate their lives to the priesthood of 
teaching, I repeat, I cannot view without alarm the utter neglect or pass without 
censure the absolute incompetency of those intrusted with the care of the young, 
mere ciphers incapable of instructing the generation that is rising, and for this 
reason J feel it my duty to call the attention of the government to these conditions, 
for this generation represents the future of the country.®® 


Character of Instruction. So far as mstruction was concerned, 
Mr. Infiesta says: 


656th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 131. 69Ibid. 


66 Education in Porto Rico 


In 1880 I made my first tour. But five towns had maps in their schools. Asa 
rule there was no class in geography and where this most important subject was 
taught it was by memory in such a mechanical way that in many towns and in 
important schools not a single pupil knew to what nation this province belongs. 
I had the honor to report this to your worthy predecessor, the Count of Caspo, 
and shortly afterwards the government lent its generous aid, providing each of the 
schools with a map of the world, one of Spain, and a relief map of the province. 
Especially in the girls schools geography was absolutely unknown.” 
Equipment and Supplies. With reference to equipment and sup- 

plies the Governor said: 

Coming down to recent times, I may further inform you that eight months after 
my arrival and while the ayuntamientos were still appointed directly by the govern- 
ment, the equipment of the schools of the whole island could not have been worse. 
There were boys’ schools in the principal towns which did not have a single writing 
book; some had but three copies of the grammar: notwithstanding the fact that the 
teacher had asked for these books repeatedly and petitions for them had been pre- 
sented to the ayuntamientos by the local juntas. In one of the girls’ schools the 
teacher was compelled to teach grammar orally from the only manuscript text that 
she possessed. But even now, with ayuntamientos elected by popular vote, of the 
1,618 boys attending the schools of one of the most important towns of the island, 
only 637 have seating accommodations. If this is the case after the government has 
just distributed school desks for 1,120 children of the superior schools of the island, 
what must have been the condition before, when in one of the heads of the de- 
partments with over 100 children enrolled, there were, two months ago, but 25 
seats provided by the municipality, and in one of the public schools there was not a 
single writing desk. A trifle over a year ago, the Governor-General provided 1,000 
pesos’ worth of new furniture for a school of adults, this furniture has not yet been 
delivered, because no room has been provided for the schools. If this is the con- 
dition in the principal towns, what must be the conditions of schools in the villages? 
Summary. ‘There was no educational progress after the Restor- 

ation, due to the intense political feeling entering all school matters. 
Educational conditions in general were the same as in the year 1865, 
and even worse. The undue attention given to the teacher was not 
moved by professional objectives, but entirely by political aims. 
The teacher was a tool in the hands of a despotic Governor. No 
attention was given to education for its own sake. The problem of 
the period was not an educational but a political one. In spite of 
such conditions and lack of educational progress, the conception 
that education is a function of the state was definitely formulated. 
Education began to be used as a tool of the state to carry out its 
political aims. The improvement of conditions toward the end of 
the period prepared the way for the constructive work of Governor 
Despujol to be considered in the next chapter. 


756th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 131. 1]bid., p. 132. 


CHAPTER V 


REORGANIZATION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION BY 
THE ORGANIC DECREE OF 1880 
(1880-1898) 


A. HuistoricaL BACKGROUND 


Spain After the Restoration. Soon after the restoration of Alfonso 
XII to his throne, the present Constitution was drawn up and pro- 
mulgated in 1876. It is a moderately liberal document which has 
withstood all the political storms since that date. Thereafter until 
the time of the war with the United States, Spain enjoyed peace at 
home under alternating Conservative and Liberal ministries, headed 
respectively by Canovas del Castillo and Sagasta, thinking that in 
the orderly rotation in office of two great political parties, which 
were loyal to the throne, the permanence of the monarchical régime 
would be assured. 


Government of Porto Rico After the Restoration. In February, 
1877, the new Spanish Constitution together with the provincial and 
municipal laws was extended to Porto Rico and the Provincial 
Deputation was re-established. Suffrage was extended to any male 
resident twenty-five years of age or over who had received a profes- 
sional diploma, or paid taxes to the amount of twenty-five pesos. 
The major part of the population was excluded from the suffrage 
under this provision. 


Autonomy: The Political Programme of the Porto Ricans. During 
the time of the Republic, in 1875, the Island had enjoyed considerable 
privileges of self-government. ‘These privileges being suppressed 
at the restoration, the Porto Ricans began again to plan and to work 
for self-government. They demanded that the Island be allowed 
to regulate her own affairs. The demands of the natives were denied 
by the Spanish government. In the Island the Conservative party, 
composed of Spaniards born in the peninsula, and of Porto Ricans 
who were on the side of Spain, ran the insular affairs at their pleasure 


(67) 


68 Education in Porto Rico 


by means of “‘caciquismo” or “boss” rule. They were opposed by 
the Porto Ricans who demanded self-government. 

The Autonomous Party. After ten years of propaganda and po- 
litical unrest, in order to give form to their ambitions and demands 
from the Spanish government, a number of popular representatives 
of the people, opposed to the policies of Spain, met in Ponce in 1887 
under the leadership of Don Roman Baldorioty de Castro. They 
formed a new political party called “El Partido Autonomista” or the 
autonomous party and demanded of Spain that, while accepting 
political and judicial identity with the mother country, and recog- 
nizing her sovereignty over the Island, the Porto Ricans be given 
the right to regulate all affairs that concerned the Island alone. In 
other words, they demanded autonomy or home rule. 

Political Unrest and Persecution. At the same time that this party 
was organized there was also organized in Ponce a secret society, the 
members of which aimed to protect themselves from the Spanish 
business interests in the Island. Don Luis Dabdan, the Governor 
General at the time, paid very little attention to the movement, but 
not so his successor, General Don Rumualdo Palacios. He charged 
the autonomist party with conspiracy against the national integrity 
by means of secret societies, and instituted what is famously known 
in the Island by the name of “Los Compontes.”” As the name im- 
plies, this meant persecution and even torture for individuals sus- 
pected of conspiracy against the government. 

The famous “Guardia Civil” or State Police would surprise the 
homes of suspected individuals at night, would tie them to the tails 
of their horses, and conduct them to some lonely place, where by 
means of the whip they were compelled to reveal whatever propaganda 
they were conducting against the government. The leaders of the 
autonomous party were persecuted and imprisoned. All men of 
liberal ideas were likewise persecuted to the extent that in Mayagiiez 
people preferred to commit suicide rather than to submit themselves to 
the whipping by the police. The peasants would flee from their huts by 
night and sleep in the woods to avoid the nightly raids of the police. 
No news could be sent out of the Island to present complaints to the 
government at Madrid. At last some autonomists succeeded in flee- 
ing from the Island and presented their grievance to the home govern- 
ment. General Palacios was removed immediately and replaced by 
Don Juan Contreras (in 1887), who put an end to the ‘“Compontes”’ 
and reestablished peace. 


Reorganization of Elementary Education (1880-1898) 69 


The People of Porto Rico Granted Home Rule. The autonomists 
continued their struggle against the Conservative Party and met 
again in Assembly in Mayagiiez, March 1891. At the same time 
Cuba was preparing to rise in arms against the mother country, and 
her problems met with sympathy among the Porto Ricans. Events 
in Cuba went from bad to worse resulting in open rebellion against the 
government and proposed intervention on the part of the United 
States. At last, in 1897, autonomy was granted to both islands. 
It was inaugurated in Porto Rico February 11, 1898. The new 
government consisted of the Governor General with his Cabinet and 
a representative assembly elected by the people. But this new govern- 
ment had hardly begun to function when intervention by the United 
-Statesin Cuba brought about the Spanish-American War. 

In view of this background of political and social conditions after the 
restoration, the insular opposition to the new law reorganizing elemen- 
tary education, its execution during the eighteen years of its history 
and the results achieved in 1898 will be better appreciated. 


B. Dercretro OrGANICO DE 1880 


Opposition to the Decree. The new school law under preparation 
by General Despujol was published September, 1880, to go into effect 
October 1 of the same year. It was approved with a few simple 
changes by the Madrid government on February 5, 1881.1 No 
sooner had the decree been published than certain municipalities 
began to oppose it to the extent of appealing to the throne. The 
municipalities contended that their rights were infringed upon, that 
the new decree placed school administration in the hands of the central 
authority, the Governor General, and practically deprived the munic- 
ipal authorities of many of the rights that the municipal laws al- 
loted to them, thus checking local initiative.2. Chief among the munic- 
ipalities were San Juan, Ponce, Mayagiiez, Cabo-Rojo, San Ger- 
man and Adjuntas. But when the question came up for legal de- 
cision the courts ruled that the Governor possessed the authority to 
intervene in all such matters, and denied the municipalities the rights 
which the laws gave them. Under the influence of the Governor a 
fine was inflicted upon the councillors and a public reprimand was 
published in the official gazette.’ 


1Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico Vigente, PreAmbulo, p. 312. 

Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico Real Orden de 5 de Febrero de 1881, p. 309. 
2Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Carta de Remision al Ministerio, pp. 293-94. 
3Moreno: Suspensién de Acuerdos y Multas a los Consejales, Puerto Rico 5 de 

Enero de 1881, pp. 297-300. 


70 Education in Porto Rico 


Divisions of Primary Education. The decree divided primary 
education into elementary and superior.‘ The first included the fol- 
lowing curriculum: Catechism, and elements of sacred history;> read- 
ing; writing; elements of Spanish grammar; elements of arithmetic 
with the legal weights, measures and money; elements of geography 
and an elementary outline of agriculture, industry and commerce.® 
Superior instruction embraced a more extensive treatment of the 
subjects just named, and in addition the following: Elements of 
history and geography, especially of Spain; elements of geometry 
with mechanical drawing and surveying; and an elementary outline 
of physics and natural history adapted in their application to the 
needs of common life.” In the curriculum of the girls’ schools, agri- 
culture, industry and commerce; geometry, mechanical drawing and 
surveying; physics and natural history were replaced by subjects 
more appropriate for the sex, namely elementary drawing, designing, 
needlework, and an elementary course in domestic hygiene.® 


Classes of Public Schools. Public primary schools were those sup- 
ported wholly by the towns of the provinces, or those supported in 
part by public or charitable funds, or other funds destined for public 
education. The towns were called upon to include in their school 
budgets teachers’ salaries, house rent for schools and for residences 
of teachers, and school supplies. In schools not supported entirely 
by the towns the government intervened only by inspection.® 

Elementary public schools for boys were divided into two classes, 
elementary schools of the first class, and those of the second class. 
Superior schools were divided into first and second classes also.!° Schools 
of the second class were often promoted to first, so that teachers who 
were faithful and improved the standards of their schools had an 
opportunity to have their schools promoted and thus to better them- 
selves financially.!! Girls’ elementary schools were also divided 


4Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, De La Primera Ensefianza, Art. 1. p. 319. 

’Spanish Constitution, Art. 11: La religidn Catdélica Apostélica Romana es la del 
Estado. La nacién se obliga a mantener el culto y sus ministros. Nadie sera molestado 
en el territorio espafiol por sus opiniones religiosas ni por ejercios de sus respectivos 
cultos salvo el respeto debido a la moral cristiana, no se permitiran, sin embargo, otras 
ceremonias ni manifestaciones ptiblicas que las de la religidn del Estado. 

®6Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, De La Primera Ensefianza, Art. 2, p. 319. 

“Ibid., Art. 3, p. 320. 

87bid., Art, 4. p. 320. 

®Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, De Las Escuelas Superiores y Elementales, Art. 32, 

107bid., Art. 33, p. 341. 

Moreno: Categorias, pp. 343-44; 345-47. 


Reorganization of Elementary Education (1880-1898) 71 


into two classes,” while the four superior schools for girls were to be 
used as model schools for the training of women teachers." 

Auxiliary, Rural, Infant and Adult Schools Defined. In addition 
to the classes of schools named above, there were established auxiliary 
and rural schools in place of the incomplete schools of the previous 
decree. Auxiliary schools were those situated in hamlets outside 
of the larger population centers, and with an attendance of at least 
twenty pupils. The municipalities supported these schools. Their 
curriculum embraced the following subjects: Catechism, reading, 
writing, elements of grammar, arithmetic through common and deci- 
mal fractions, and the metric system." In girls’ schools sewing was 
added.'® Rural schools were those established where there were no 
groupings of dwellings, with an attendance of at least fifteen pupils.” 
Provison was made for the establishment of infant schools to be taught 
by the Sisters of Charity, and adult schools.!® The adult schools 
were discontinued in 1893, because of their practical failure, and only 
the San Juan school was left in operation.!® There were established 
also prison schools which were also discontinued, due to their failure. 
Some superior schools were suppressed later, because of lack of a 
sufficient number of pupils to attend them.?° 

Private and Domestic Education. Private schools were allowed to 
be established, provided the director of each school was at least 
twenty years of age and possessed a legal teaching certificate.’The 
age ruling was changed in 1895, when any citizen could establish and 
teach in a private school.” Parents wishing to prepare their children 
at home by means of a private tutor were allowed to do so and upon 
examination the children were admitted to the secondary school. 
No academic qualifications of any kind were required of private 
tutors. The wealthy availed themselves of this opportunity to 
educate their children at home. 

Daily Sessions. Elementary, superior and auxiliary schools were 


Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Art. 38, p. 347. 
3Ibid., Art. 39, p. 347. 

M4Jiid., Art. 42, p. 348. 

1Jhid., Art. 43, p. 348. 

1Ibid., Art. 44, p. 349. 

W]Ibid., Art. 45, p. 349. 

18Ibid., Arts. 45-50, pp. 349-51. 

19Moreno: Supresién de Escuelas, pp. 351-53. 
20Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Arts. 51-52, p. 353. 
21Moreno: Edad para Ejecer el Magisterio, pp. 354-55. 
Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Art. 53, p. 354. 

3 Ibid. 


72 Education in Porto Rico 


to have six hours of school work daily, three in the morning and three 
in the afternoon.** Rural schools were to have five hours daily, from 
ten in the morning to three in the afternoon, in order that poor children 
might be at liberty to assist their parents in domestic duties and 
field labor. The hours in the rural schools could be changed ac- 
cording to circumstances.” 

Compulsory Instruction. Elementary instruction was compulsory 
from six to twelve years of age, and the decree provided for various 
kinds of punishment to parents who did not send their children 
to school. It was impossible to put this provision into operation, 
owing to the fact that there were not enough public schools for all 
the children of school age. Moreover, parents did not realize the 
need of an education and would not co-operate with authorities in 
sending their children to school. Education was gratuitous only for 
poor children whose parents had to prove their state of poverty 
before the children were admitted to the school.?8 Under such cir- 
cumstances it was impossible to have compulsory education. There 
were many orders issued by the government dictating rules and regu- 
lations to carry out this provision of the decree, and stating the pun- 
ishments to parents who disobeyed the law, but these were merely 
issued and very seldom applied, as is shown by their frequency, and 
by the fact that they had no effect on parents who did not send their 
children to school.?9 

Report on Attendance. With regard to attendance in the southern 
district in 1886, Infiesta in his report to the Governor says: 

Your Excellency, who is perfectly acquainted with this province, knows better 
than anybody else the long distance the country children have to go to attend school. 
They have to cross ravines, rivers and mountains. They are badly nourished and 
exposed to all the rigors of the climate. They can neither attend school regularly 
nor receive a solid education.” 

I have visited thirty-five municipalities during the rainy season and I know by 
experience the great difficulties which must be overcome to have good school attend- 
ance. There are children whe have to travel three miles across torrents and through 
perilous trails in order to go to school. Together with these natural obstacles go the 


wretchedly poor condition of the people, and the ignorance of parents, who, not 
knowing the benefits of an education, resist sending their children to school.*! 


*4Moreno: Reglamento de las Escuelas Publicas y Particulares, Art. 12, p. 470. 
*5Moreno: Decreto Organico, Art. 48, p. 350. 

*6Moreno: Horas de Clase, Puerto Rico 30 de Abril, 1880, p. 350. 

*7Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Arts. 5-6, pp. 321-22. 

*8Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Art. 7, p. 331. 

*9Moreno: See pp. 321-31 for many circulars. 

3°Infiesta, op. cit., p. 10. 

7Tbid., p. 10-11. 


Reorganization of Elementary Education (1880-1898) 73 


Article 45 of the Organic Decree rules that no rural school should have less than 
fifteen pupils. Local juntas have not looked after this. Only four children attend 
the ‘Rucio’ school of Pefiuelas, eight the ‘Jobos’ school of Guayama, and seven the 
‘Descalabrados’ school of Santa Isabel.” 

Speaking of the attendance in the urban school soon after the de- 
cree had been put into operation, the same inspector says: 

The municipal judges neglect to prosecute the parents who do not send their 
children to school, so one finds the proceedings against the parents laid on the shelf. 
As a result the children began to desert the schools, thus making the work of the 
teachers fruitless. In Caguas, during my visit, I found 615 proceedings neglected, 
the schools with only about half of the pupils attending and a general irregularity in 
attendance. . . After your circular of December 15, 1884, attendance has im- 


proved. The average attendance now in the elementary schools is about 70 per 
cont. 


Aim and Method of Education. The decree and following rules 
and regulations placed a great deal of emphasis on the subject matter. 
An outline of each subject, content to be covered and method of 
teaching, was dictated by the government. Especial emphasis was 
placed on religious and moral education.** All studies were to be 
pursued by means of text books which in turn had to be authorized 
by the government and the Church.** Many texts were authorized 
and the teachers were given freedom to choose the texts they wished. 
Most of the texts were in catechetical form, questions and answers 
on the different subjects. The pupils committed these to memory 
and recited to the teacher when called upon. There was no co- 
ordination of schools, much less a graded system, as each teacher 
opened and conducted his own school absolutely independently of other 
teachers and other schools. He selected whatever books he pleased 
from the authorized number and taught what he wished and as he 
wished. As learning meant committing to memory the text books 
the teacher selected, a pupil would attend school for say six years, 
learning all the books of that school until he could repeat them from 
cover to cover. If at the end of that time he moved or was sent 
to another school, the pupil would have to start at the beginning again 
and commit to memory all the texts of the new teacher, for the new 
teacher was probably using a different set of texts. Ifathird change 
in school came, the pupil had to repeat the same process. The 
teacher did not study nor did he prepare any lessons; it was all done 


27bid., p. 31. 

33Infiesta, op. cit., p. 14. 

Moreno: Reglamento de las Escuelas Puiblicas y Particulares, pp. 465-83. 
%Jbid., Arts. 18-25, pp. 335-40. 


74 Education in Porto Rico 


for him in the text book. The end of the school was not the child, 
but the teacher. The child was a necessary evil in the school. 

Method of Teaching. ‘The general method of instruction was the 
Lancasterian method. The school was divided into sections or classes 
and advanced pupils were placed as instructors in charge of the differ- 
~ ent sections. Each section recited to the pupil instructor while the 
teacher heard the lessons of the instructors after they had finished 
their different tasks. Individual study by the pupils, whether in 
school or out of school, was done in a loud voice. ‘The noise of the 
pupils studying could be heard several hundred feet before one reached 
the school. Study meant infinite repetition of the questions and 
answers until one knew them so well that they could be repeated with- 
out effort. Often a child might be able to repeat without a mistake 
the whole of a book, but not know the meaning of any of the questions 
and answers that he could repeat so well. If the teacher happened 
to change the form of the question from that in the book, the pupil 
would frequently be unable to answer. 

Report on School Organization. Regarding the organization of the 
schools in practice, their co-ordination and gradation, Mr. Infiesta 
reports the following in 1886: 

Speaking of the superior schools, that is, the public superior schools, I must call 
your attention to a matter that practically nullifies their organization, and prevents 
the schools from carrying out the purpose of the law. According to article 27 of the 
rules governing elementary schools in towns where there are superior schools, 
only children from the elementary schools should enter the superior schools, after 
they know the commandments, parts of the grammar, common fractions, elements of 
geography, sacred history, and know how to read fluently and to write some. Your 
Excellency must have observed, specially in Ponce, many children in the superior 
schools learning to read in the primer, while you must have observed many children 
well advanced in their studies, attending the elementary schools. A superior school, 
with many pupils learning the alphabet, as you have observed, and the teacher 
teaching fourteen subjects, cannot fulfill its mission.** The superior school of Ponce, 


in charge of the teacher, D. Francisco Cortés, is an example of the above: On 
January 1, 1887, it had 59 pupils distributed according to age, thus: 


6 of 6 years of age. 5 of 11 years of age. 

8 of 7 years of age. 5 of 12 years of age. 
10 of 8 years of age. 4 of 13 years of age. 
12 of 9 years of age. 4 of 14 years of age.*” 


5 of 10 years of age. 


The same statistics show that there was very little difference between 
the ages of the pupils in the superior schools and those of the elemen- 


Infiesta, op. cit.. pp. 17-18.  87Ibid., Second part, Chart No. 1. 


Reorganization of Elementary Education (1880-1898) 75 


tary schools of the first and second classes. Schools were not graded 
and all schools admitted beginners as well as more advanced pupils. 
The advanced pupils, as already stated, were used as instructors. 

Report on Methods of Teaching. Regarding methods of teaching 
the same report says the following: 

Just as I have called the attention to the progress made in education, I also must 
say that in most of the schools the teaching of moral and religious education is only 
aroutine. The teacher aims only to develop the memory and to empty the catechism 
into the brain of the pupil without any explanation whatever, or anything else that 
will help the pupil to understand, appreciate and feel the severe and sublime maxims 
of the Gospel. If a question in the text is changed or the teacher appeals to the 
emotions, the child does not understand. Outside of the memory, exercised to 
repeat automatically the literal answers to the questions, there is nothing. Of 
course this cannot be said of all the teachers, for there are some who harmonize 
well the instruction with moral education, but these are in the minority. 

The inspector would not have been wrong had he affirmed that the 
same method prevailed in the teaching of most of the other subjects 
of the curriculum. It cannot be said that there was any system to 
the schools. It was a personal matter with the teacher as to what he 
taught, when and how. Some teachers, in spite of lack of system 
and authority, were skilled and did good work, but the majority neglect- 
ed their duties. 

Examinations and Prizes. General school examinations were held 
every year.*? The local juntas of public instruction would examine 
the pupils in all the subjects of the curriculum. Prizes were given 
to those in the different sections who made the best answers in the 
opinion of the board of examiners. The distribution of prizes was 
held in the assembly room of the town hall. It was a very solemn 
affair, attended by the most prominent citizens and officials of the 
town. The prize winners from the different schools, both urban 
and rural, would all assemble to receive their awards for their dili- 
gence. At least one pupil from every school was prepared to make 
anoration. Theseorations were the basis of rivalry among the schools. 
At one time the prizes were medals of gold and silver, but during the 
latter part of the period under consideration, a first prize was one 
peso, and a second a half peso. 

Punishments. Rewards were not the only means to stimulate the 


heart and intelligence of the pupils. The law provided the following 


38Infiesta, op. cit., p. 21. 
38Moreno: Reglamento de la Escuelas Publicas y Particulares, Seccién Quinta, De 
los Ex4menes Generales de las Escuelas, Arts. 61-66, pp. 481-83. 


76 Education in Porto Rico 


lawful punishments: 1. To make the child read over and over again 
the moral principle which he had broken. 2. To make the child 
copy after school hours a number of lines from the reader or any 
other book selected by the teacher. 3. To send the pupils out to 
doerrands. 4. To erase from the honor list the name of the offender, 
in case he was an honor pupil. 5. To make the child stand up or 
kneel down for a certain number of hours. 6. To keep him in after 
school hours.‘ The men teachers, however, did not confine them- 
selves to these. Gross and cruel punishments were strictly prohibited 
by the law. But teachers did not stop with legally recognized pun- 
ishment. Sometimes while the child knelt he was made to extend 
his arms out and hold a certain number of books in each hand, being 
forced to keep them up, no matter how tired he was. Sometimes 
the teacher would make the pupil go down on all fours in a corner 
of the room, place some grass in front of him and make him wear 
two long paper ears. Another punishment known to exist, although 
not common, was to have the pupil kneel down on a grater or some- 
thing that would hurt his knees. The most common punishment was 
the famous “‘palmeta’”’ or ferrule. Sometimes a strap was used and 
applied, generally to the legs or the back of the pupil. 

The teacher did not spank; he whipped, and the child bore the 
signs, showing that nothing had been spared to make him feel the 
effects. The most grave offenses, worthy of the strap or “‘palmeta,”’ 
were lack of preparation or misbehavior. Often parents objected to 
the teacher who punished too much and the children were taken out 
of school and placed under the care of a private tutor. It often 
happened that the big boys fought the teacher, but corporal punish- 
ment, as a rule, was popular. ‘The teacher was expected to use it 
and oftentimes the one who did the most whipping was considered 
the best teacher. 

A teacher’s efficiency was judged by the order he kept and by the 
ability of his pupils to repeat answers to the questions in the books. 
The end of education was memorizing and the means to that end 
was the rod, which was applied freely in spite of the law. It is 
well to remember this practice of Spanish days, for many people to- 
day criticize the present school system, because corporal punishment 
is allowed under certain circumstances and in very rare cases, while 
in Spanish days it was virtually abolished. However, during the 


“°Moreno: Reglamento de la Escuelas Publicas y Particulares, Seccién Quinta, De 
los Ex4menes Generales de las Escuelas, Arts. 53-55, pp. 477-78. 


Reorganization of Elementary Education (1880-1898) 17 


Spanish dominion, although prohibited, corporal punishment was 
used freely and cruelly; to-day, while permitted, it is very rarely 
employed. | 

Teachers’ Qualifications. With the exception of foreign language 
teachers, all teachers had to be Spanish born or naturalized citizens, 
twenty years of age, of good religious, moral and civic conduct, and 
the holders of the proper teacher’s certificate.*! Later these qualifica- 
tions were slightly changed. After 1895, any Spanish citizen of good 
religious moral and civic conduct, and the possessor of the required 
certificate was allowed to teach in either public or private schools.” 
Besides the above, there were certain physical requirements.* 


Provision for Normal Schools. In order to train teachers, the de- 
crees provided for the establishment of a normal school for men,*! 
and four model schools for girls.* These four schools were established 
in San Juan, Ponce, Mayagtiez and Humacao. They were the four 
superior schools for girls established by the decree, and their purpose 
was to serve as model schools where the women candidates for the 
teaching profession were trained.“ They were supported by the Pro- 
vincial Deputation and not by municipalities. They served their 
purpose poorly for ten years and being more or less of a failure the 
government decided to establish a normal school for women. ‘This 
school and the normal school for men were not established until 1890. 


Certificate to Teach. Until the normal schools were established, 
there were no special schools for the training of teachers outside of 
the four schools just mentioned. There were, however, certain 
academic requirements which candidates for the teacher’s certificates 
had to pursue and be examined in, before receiving the certificate. 
Four kinds of teachers’ certificates were issued, superior, elementary, 
auxiliary and rural. A rural school certificate was granted to candi- 
dates who took an examination in the subjects taught in the auxiliary 
schools before a committee meeting at the principal city of the depart- 
ment and composed of the president of the local school board, the teacher 
of the superior school and another teacher. An auxiliary certificate 
was granted to a candidate who had attended the normal school, if a 


41Moreno: Decreto Organico, Art. 54. p. 354. 

“Mforeno: Edad para Ejecer el Magisterio, Marzo 28, 1895, p. 354-55. 
48Moreno: Decreto Organico, Art. 55 and other circulars, pp. 355-58. 
“Tbid., Arts. 26-28, pp. 340-41. 

*Ibid., Art. 31, p. 341. 

“Jbid., Art. 39, p. 347. 


78 Education in Porto Rico 


man; or if a woman, a model school, pursuing the curriculum of the 
auxiliary school.* 

Elementary certificates were granted to men who had studied in 
the normal school and had pursued and been examined in the follow- 
ing curriculum:—Reading prose, poetry and manuscript; writing, 
catechism and elements of sacred history, elements of pedagogy, 
arithmetic, grammar and composition, mechanical drawing, general 
geography and geography of Spain, outlines of Spanish history, 
elements of geometry, elements of agriculture, industry and commerce.® 
They were also granted to women who had studied in a model school 
and had pursued and been examined in the same subjects as the men 
teachers, except that they substituted designing, needlework, and 
hygiene for geometry and agriculture, industry and commerce.*® 

Superior certificates were granted to men who possessed an elemen- 
tary certificate and who had pursued and been examined in the following 
subjects: Catechism and sacred history, writing, pedagogy, arith- 
metic and algebra, geometry and surveying, mechanical drawing, 
grammar, geography, general history, physics and natural history. 
The same requirements were to be fulfilled by women teachers except 
that they substituted designing and needlework for surveying and 
mechanical drawing.®® Until the normal school for men was establish- 
ed, candidates for the auxiliary school certificate had to practice one 
year in some school. Those for the elementary certificate had to 
show that they had pursued the studies outlined in the normal school 
curriculum. Candidates for the superior certificate were required to 
practice a year in a superior school.*' All certificates were to be 
obtained by examination. 

Establishment and Curriculum of Normal School. By the royal decree 
of June 19, 1890, the Crown authorized the establishment of two 
normal schools, one for men and another for women.” Each normal 
school offered a four year course. At the end of the third year the 
certificate of elementary school teacher was granted, and those wish- 
ing to prepare themselves to teach in the superior schools pursued 


“Moreno: Reglamento para ExAmenes de Maestros y Maestras de Instruccién 

lepaty Elemental y Superior, Arts. 1-3, pp. 489-90. 
a 

49Tbid., Art. 4. 

5 Tbid., Art. 5. 
‘Jbid., Arts. 6-7, p. 490. 

®’Moreno: Real Decreto de 19 de 1890. Creando Escuelas Normales de Maestros y 
Maestras en Cuba y Puerto Rico, p. 681. 


Reorganization of Elementary Education (1880-1898) 79 


the studies of the fourth year. The entrance requirement was an 
elementary school education. The men’s normal school offered the 
following curriculum: 

First Year. Catechism and sacred history, orthoepy, writing, 
Spanish grammar, arithmetic, elements of geometry, elements of the 
history of Spain, music and singing, practice teaching. 

Second Year. Continuation of orthoepy and writing, continuation 
of grammar and composition, geometry, mechanical drawing and 
surveying, elements of geography and general history, agriculture, 
practice teaching. 

Third Year. Religion, grammar, outlines of philosophy, physical 
and natural sciences, industry and commerce, physical education 
and practice teaching. 

Fourth Year. Education, rhetoric and poetics, school legislation, 
arithmetic and algebra, book-keeping, music, singing, practice teach- 
ing. The curriculum of the girls’ normal school was the same with 
additional work in designing, cutting of garments and needlework, 
while surveying and mechanical drawing was omitted.™ 

Model Schools. Each normal school had a model school of both 
elementary and superior grades where the students did their practice 
teaching. The students attending the normal schools were official 
students or free. Official students were those who registered, paid the 
entrance fees, attended school and pursued the regular course of 
study under the instruction of the faculty; free students required 
permission to attend classes, but were not obliged to attend. They 
could stay at home or in a private school and go to the normal schools 
for examinations only. 

Competitive Examinations. After the students finished the normal 
school course and had been examined in all the subjects of the curricu- 
lum, they were ready to take the competitive examinations, held at 
different dates, which had been previously announced. Regular pro- 
grams of all the topics on which the students were to be examined 
were printed and secured by the students. They studied these over 
and over before the examination, and then when that day arrived 
they appeared before the board of examiners. Each student was 
examined individually on the series of topics for the different subjects 
in the program: the topics selected by chance. Pieces of wood, each 
one marked with a number, were placed in a box, as many pieces of 


33Moreno: Reglamento por que han de regirse las Escuelas Normales de Maestros y 
maestras de Cuba y Puerto Rico, Arts. 2-7, pp. 694-97. 


80 Education in Porto Rico 


wood as there were questions in the program. The student drew 
from the box a certain number of these and answered the questions 
bearing the same number in the program.™ 

Appointment of Teachers. All appointments of teachers were made 
by the insular government.» Elementary and superior teachers 
qualified for appointmeat by competitive examinations. Auxiliary 
and rural teachers were appointed to positions without examination 
until 1892, when they also had to submit to competitive examinations.® 

However, in 1895, auxiliary and rural school teachers were again 
exempted from examinations.” 

Teachers’ Salaries. 'The salaries established by the decree were as 
follows: 


Boys’ ScHooLs Per Annum 
Superior Schools Pesos 
First lage a ee IE a che tal Wud eCe Oe COR Be ne 
Second ‘Clase i6ohig Gin bacte taste ra ne eh ee «ta eeu & leit Petits ae ee 
Elementary Schools: 
First Class atSan Juan, Ponce, and Mayagiies......................-. 720 
First Class at other towns........ MEE ae raRy hey aR) 
Second Clags'at Son Tian Panes and Mavernes Ts eee 540 
Second, Class at'other tows iis) sis 6 Fave ee eels oleae anal eke Se en 
Auxillary Schoolsi icici tee UA Pe re cia cle a ea eae aes cere) es hee te ee ee 
Rural Sehoolks oie RRs A OF ce de cle LTRs 


GrRis’ SCHOOLS 
Superior Schools 


Ab San Puan oo Ra ee Bony sear eis a et SUL nc Ree ee a 900 

At Pericd and Mavapiten 3 los) 10s a dis cid ote a tae vba be amelie oa scree aha feta 

AG Humiacan sg) lei Oe ae ane ae yo San i INR ar cv ORT ee 
Elementary Schools: 

First) Clap iii iGh ati arn Wehner ec oe oe Ae Tana ec Ae ANUS ml ee 

Second Class. WRC ERE TaN TANIA Mee ae IL ack eM U Eanacalnteg ma anteah dk Zee RE 
Auxiliary Schools. ee , UMS OS eee 


By order of Ser tarabern ve “1893, ne Be Bf women Sedans 
were made the same as those of the men.®® The different munici- 
palities were free to increase the salaries of teachers if they wished.®! 
Teachers on leave of absence because of illness received a half of 


‘See Appendix 11 for examples of questions. 

55Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Art. 59, p. 359. Ibid., Art. 56, p. 358. 

56Moreno: Oposiciones, Puerto Rico, 28 de Octubre de 1892, p. 366. 

'7Moreno: Provisién de Escuelas, Puerto Rico, 6 de Mayo de 1895, p. 366. 
58Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Art. 69, p. 374. 

8Moreno: Ibid., Art. 70, p. 374. 

6°Moreno: Nivelacién de Sueldos, Real Orden de 7 de Septiembre de 1893, p. 375. 
6{Moreno: Aumentos Voluntarios de sueldos, Real Orden Junio 24, 1884, p. 376. 


Reorganization of Elementary Education (1880-1898) 81 


their salaries, and the substitutes received the other half. In ad- 
dition to the salaries the municipalities were obliged to include in 
their annual budgets a sum for teachers’ residences, based on the 
following scale: 


Boys’ ScHOOLs Pesos a Year 

for Each School 

For superior schools of the First) Class noes fe ait, Wdctowdls ce dua vntc ae yaa DOO 
For Superior Schools of the Second Class. .............00.0.0000ceeeeees. 204 
For Elementary Schools of the First Class... .......... 0.000000 ce ceueeesee 144 
For Elementary Schools of the Second Class...................2....0+... 84 
Mora uxilary Schools 2s cae ey a eae ukulele GRry Behe ee tr BO 
WOPstL Ural SCHOOLS 2): sic tes OUT ode aroies Ete oneal Oe ae Renee crane Ip 
GrIRLs’ SCHOOLS Pesos a Year 

for Each School 

Buperiog school at oan duane. cers a dees ides ede wate rie Halal eliel alien eOO 
Bredorcchools at Maynetee rnd Ponce PMNS Avon Sheeye aa Gate eittho HOO 
Ser SCL AUER NEN ORT HO aC ook NC Vong 
Hlementary) ochools, 1 Firsts Class ivan sect ania! usta eda Oe ey ae 
Elementary Schools, Second Class). 0.00.00. b bec ek de ee eee es (84 
PA TIRAA TY OCHOOIS spit ciate aa een imme e te ALS RMUs EKO URE GA aa Waco aN aa Sig Leal ted eS GOM 


Fees. ‘The teachers were permitted to collect fees from pupils 
who could pay, as only poor pupils were admitted free of charge. 
In 1883, pupils fees were fixed on the basis of the following scale: 


Auxiliary & Elemen- Super- 
Rural tary ior 
Schools Schools Schools 


Monthly Fee in Pesos 


Parents paying $25 direct tax to State............... 25 .50 1.00 
Parents paying $25 to $50 direct tax to State........ .50 1.00 2.00 
Parents paying $50 to $100 direct tax to State....... 1.00 2.00 3.00 
Parents paying above $100 direct tax to State....... 1.50 3.00 3.50 
Employees earning from $400 to $1000............. .50 1.00 2.00 
Employees earning from $1000 to $2000............ 1.00 2.00 3.00 
Employees earning above $2000................... 1.50 3.00 3.5085 


A year later by royal order, this scale of fees was discontinued, the 
fees being thereafter settled by agreement between the parents and 


®Moreno: Maestros con Licencia, P. R. 29 de Nov. 1878, p. 238. Licencias, 
Circulars on pages 818-21. 

Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Art. 77, p. 385. 

“Ibid., Art. 78, p. 390. 

“Moreno: Retribuciones, Puerto Rico, 10 de Agosto de 1883, p. 390-91. 


82 Education in Porto Rico 


the teachers. As the municipalities often held the teachers’ salaries 
in arrears, the fees from the students were very much welcomed by the 
teachers. All during this period the governors issued circular after 
circular every year, and some years twice, urging the municipalities 
to pay their debts to the teachers.” Mr. Infiesta, inspector of the 
southern district, in his report to the government makes the complaint 
that while many towns paid their teachers religiously, others did not. 
He also reported the fact that many teachers had to pay their own 
house rent from their small salaries.® 

Teachers’ Pensions. Toward the end of the period, in 1894, the 
Spanish law of 1857, granting old age pensions to teachers, was made 
applicable to Porto Rico. In case of the death of the teacher, the 
widow or orphans were pensioned. By this law, normal school 
teachers, inspectors and teachers of public primary instruction were 
after twenty, twenty-five, thirty and thirty-five years of service, pen- 
sioned the amount of the pension depending on the years of ser- 
vice. °° , 

Administration: The Provincial Junta. The administration of 
education was very little changed by this decree from that of 1865. 
The Superior Junta of public instruction was now designated as the 
Provincial Junta. It was composed of the president, who was the 
Governor, and twelve other members, among whom were the Di- 
rector of the Civil Institute, the Director of the men’s normal school, 
the inspector of the district, a priest and four heads of families.” A 
secretary was appointed, nota member of the junta, and a salaried off- 
cer.” Provincial Junta was the highest educational authority in the 
Island and had charge of all matters concerning primary education. 
In practice the Governor controlled this body, all circulars were 
issued and signed by him, and the Junta was merely an advisory body 
to the Governor. 

The Local Juntas. The local juntas of the 1865 decree retained the 
same name under a different constitution. They were composed of 
the mayor of the town as president, a member of the city council, the 


Moreno: Retribuciones, P. R., 8 de Octubre de 1884, p. 391. 

*’Moreno: See circulars entitled “‘Pagos’’ in pages 840 to 851. 

°*Infiesta: Memoria con los cuadros de ensefianza y estadisticos correspondientes, 
que sobre el estado de la instruccién primaria, en el distrito de esta Provincia, presenta 
epithe General de la misma. Puerto Rico, Tip. El Comercio, Fortaleza 48, 

5) De (Bee 

**Moreno: Derechos Pasivos, Rea] Decreto de 1 de Febrero de 1894, p. 747-753. 

“Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Art., 87, p. 399. 

“Tbid., Art., 92, p. 402. 


Reorganization of Elementary Education (1880-1898) 83 


parish priest and three heads of families, where the population of the 
municipality was ten thousand inhabitants or less. An additional 
member was allowed for every 4000 inhabitants above this number.” 

The duties of the local boards were similar to those of the same bodies 
in the 1865 decree, special emphasis being placed on their supervisory 
powers. The supervision of education in the municipalities, whether 
public or private, was in their hands. They had the power to sus- 
pend teachers in public as well as in private schools. As a general 
rule they did not attend to take their supervisory duties. As a 
result the circulars sent out by the Governor, urging upon these bodies 
to perform their duties, were many.” 

Mr. Infiesta, in the same report already quoted has the following 
to say about the local juntas of public instruction: 

The present school legislation imposes certain supervisory duties on the local 
juntas. They do not always fulfill their duties. I am not the only one to say so. 
The professional press says so every day; Governor Despujol said so; Governor 
La Portilla said so after his visit through the Island; Governor Vega Inclan said 
so.on April 30, 1883, and your Excellency on April 4, 1884 expressed satisfaction 
with the work that had been done, and pointed out the things that remained to be 
done. 

Then, he goes on and points out that the juntas met once a month, 
kept their records well and named one of their number to in- 
spect the schools, thus complying with articles 106, 107 and 108 of 
the Organic Decree. He says: 

However, if it is so in the minutes, and if these corporations really take such 
action, it must be said that their actions are not carried out in practice in most of the 
towns. With few exceptions the school registers, and especially those of the rural 
schools, show that the schools are not visited by the juntas. In some of the towns 
the visits are recorded, but they were never made in school. . . .In places where 
there are auxiliary committees, .1t would be better that they be suppressed. The 
records of these committees in the school registers are ridiculous, with many mis- 
spelled words and without any sense. In Ceiba, for example, I noticed that some 
members of the local juntas, beginning with the only representative of the town 
council, did not know how to write. In many of the towns the school is never 
visited except on examination day.” 

Inspection. Regarding inspection, the decree gave the right of 
inspection to the government in the following words: 

The government will exercise inspection and vigilance over the establishments of 
instruction, be they public or private, by means of two inspectors, who will be the 
government’s special representatives. The civil authorities will see as one of their 


?2Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Arts. 96-97, p. 403. 
Moreno: See circulars printed on pages 430-440. 
“Infiesta, op. cit., pp. 28-29. 


S84 Education in Porto Rico 


important responsibilities that neither in the public nor in the private schools any 
impediment will be placed in the way of either the Reverend Bishop or his special 
representative in the government of the diocese, or of the priests, in the practice of 
their special ministry. They are to watch over the purity of doctrine, faith and 
customs.’5 


As before, the Island was divided into two districts, north and 
south, with headquarters in San Juan and Ponce, respectively.” 
There were thirty-seven towns in the northern district and _thirty- 
two in the southern.” The distribution of the towns in each district 
was changed slightly, later, but not enough to change the system. 
The inspectors were appointed by the Governor General. The 
qualifications for the inspectors were, a normal school education, 
with five years experience in a public superior school, or eleven years 
in a private superior school. In case of lack of men with that prep- 
aration, inspectors were to be named from among superior teachers 
with eight years experience.”® After April 9, 1892, the inspectors 
were named by the crown, from among men teachers holding a 
normal school certificate of either elementary or superior grade.’® 
The remuneration of the inspectors was 1600 pesos salary, 100 pesos 
for stationery and 500 pesos for travelling expenses per annum.®? 
They were to visit all the town schools and at least half of the rural 
schools every year.8! The inspectors were the confidentialagents of 
the government to visit, watch the activities of the schools and 
report to the government. 

School Buildings. No school buildings were erected during the 
period. Some of the municipalities bought buildings for school pur- 
poses, but very few. The majority of the municipalities rented 
buildings for schools as well as for teachers’ residences. Generally 
classes were held in the largest room of the teachers residence, called 
platsale. 

The buildings were all poor and generally not fit for the purpose. 
Governor General Vega Inclan, in a visit of inspection, found this 
true. He recommended to the municipalities to buy buildings which 


Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Arts. 79-80, p. 392. 

*Ibid., Art. 81, p. 393 

“Moreno: Decreto Organico, Reglamento de Inspectores Provinciales de Primera 
Ensefianza, pp. 440-41. 

‘8Moreno: Decreto Organico, Art. 82, p. 393. 

™8Moreno: Inspectores, Real Orden de 9 de Abril de 1892, p. 393-94. 

80Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Art. 83, p. 394. 

§\Moreno: Visitas de Inspeccién, Puerto Rico. 27 de Abril, 1886, p. 398-99. 

“Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Reglamento de Inspectores Provinciales de Primera 
Ensefianza, pp. 440-49. 


Reorganization of Elementary Education (1880-1898) 85 


were fit to be used asschoolhouses. Calling the attention of the muni- 
cipalities especially to the rural school buildings, he asked them to 
rent better buildings even if they had to increase their appropriations 
for rent. In 1888 the government requested the municipalities to 
make appropriations for school buildings.** The same year the 
government prepared and issued three plans for school houses but 
nothing was done either by the municipalities or by the insular govern- 
ment. 

In the report already quoted Mr. Infiesta has the following to say 
about school buildings in the southern district, which is representative 
of the whole Island at that time. Referring to rural school houses, 
he says: 

The huts set aside as places to instruct the young look more like miserable hog 
pens than institutions of learning, many of them with yagua and palma floors, 
narrow and small, without light, without a place to hang a chart or a blackboard. . . . 
the children crowded like big bundles in a house used for storage the teachers have 
not enough room to divide the school into sections, nor any opportunity to develop 
any sort of method, nor is it possible to work in such places with any advantage. 
Some of these houses are not worth their annual rent. Occasionally a local junta 
changes a rural school house from one barrio to another, because the owner of the 
house wants the place vacated. This moving around nullifies the efforts of the 
teachers and the municipalities. 

Regarding the urban school buildings, the inspectors said that the 
majority were not suitable for school houses.* 

Supplies and Equipment. As to school supplies, all the municipali- 
ties were under the obligation of providing them for the poor children, 
and the local juntas were the bodies authorized to see the law carried 
out. As the municipalities failed to provide the schools with sup- 
plies, Governor General Vega Incl4n requested them to pay the 
teachers every month an extra allowance for supplies.” 

‘In spite of all this most of the pupils bought their own supplies. 
Mr. Infiesta reports the condition of school supplies in his district, 
thus: 

The schools are in urgent need of furniture; many do not have a chair for the 


teacher, nor a crucifix, nor chart, nor clock, nor shelves, nor the tables and benches 
_ needed, nor a book-case. . . When I began my work as inspector we had none of the 


Moreno: Instruccién Publica, Abril 30, 1883, p. 329. _ 

“Moreno: Proyectos de Edificios para Escuelas, Puerto Rico, Agosto 8, 1888, pp. 
387-89. 

SInfiesta, op. cit., p. 19. ' 

8 Moreno: Decreto Organico, Reglamento para las Juntas Locales de Instruccién, p. 
427. 

8™Moreno: Instruccién Publica, Puerto Rico, Abril 30, 1883, p. 330. 


86 Education in Porto Rico 


furniture we have today, but the government supplied the superior schools with 

good supplies, distributed maps among the elementary schools, and the rest of the 

equipment has been supplied by the towns themselves from their small appropria- 
tion. . .not all towns show such lack of interest, Ponce, Juana Diaz, Salinas, 

Maunabo, Caguas, Yauco, Fajardo, Luquillo, Piedras, and others, have spent 

money in supplies.® 

Education Under the Autonomous Government. 1898. ‘The Organic 
Decree of 1880 was in force until February 11, 1898, when the au- 
tonomous constitution went into effect, which declared that a colony 
had full authority to establish its own system of education. At this 
time the Spanish school law of 1857 went into operation in Porto 
Rico. ‘The department of education was placed in the hands of Mr. 
Manuel F. Rossy and Dr. José C. Barbosa, who immediately began 
to reform education. There was substituted for the Provincial 
Junta a Council of Public Instruction whose function was to give 
information and make suggestions in connection with all the ques- 
tions relating to public schools. 

The Council consisted of thiry-six members, divided into three 
sections, and charged with matters pertaining to primary, secondary 
and professional education, and belles-lettres. They commenced the 
necessary statistical work for the projected reform. However, soon 
dissensions arose among the government officials, the members of the 
Provincial Junta, and the Council of Public Instruction, to the ex- 
tent that the latter resigned their positions July 22 of the same year.®® 
By this time the war with the United States was on, and education 
as well as every other phase of the insular life was in a chaotic 
condition. 


CoNDITION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN 1898 


The Organic Decree of General Despujol, 1880, was not in force 
when the United States took possession of the Island, but since the 
autonomous government had not had time to establish any school 
organization, what the United States found in 1898 was the fruit of 
the 1880 decree. The educational conditons in Porto Rico at that 
time should show what the decree had accomplished. The opinions 
given here regarding educational conditions in 1898 are either those 
of Porto Ricans or of committees composed of Porto Ricans and 
Americans. 

Report on How the Political Conditions Reflected on Education. Re- 


88[nfiesta, op. cit., jahalsy 4 
8956th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 137. 


Reorganization of Elementary Education (1880-1898) 87 


garding the political conditions of the period, Mr. Enrique C. Her- 
nandez, Secretary of the Insular Board of Education in 1898, in his 
report to the President of the same body says: 


The political and religious persecution that began in the island upon the restora- 
tion of the monarchy and that had such unfortunate results upon public instruction, 
continued to increase. There was established here a species of political inquisition 
by a Conservative or unconditional Spanish party, as it was called, in order to 
distinguish its members from those Porto Ricans who desired to remain under 
Spanish sovereignty upon conditions that Porto Rico should possess the same 
rights as the other Spanish provinces. The purpose of this inquisition was to 
preserve the supremacy of the party in the government and to secure for its members 
all the positions, so that Porto Ricans were excluded practically from all public 
offices of importance unless they happened to be members of this party. The 
same persecutions made themselves felt in school affairs. Teachers whose political 
or religious ideas differed from those maintained by the party were sooner or later 
deprived of their schools. As proof of this, and in order that the standpoint of the 
government may be seen, we copy the following statement of its policy from the 
reports of one of its inspectors, Dor Juan Macho Moreno. . . .“The mission of an 
Inspector of primary instruction in these countries distant from the motherland, 
and influenced by currents of thought, censurable—if we may not apply to them the 
stronger terms of pernicious—demands, duties and conditions which can only be 
satisfied completely by those officers who are fully inspired with the fervor of patriot- 
ism, who have the strength of will to meet all opposition which their ideals must 
encounter, able to discover the social wound where it exists, more or less hidden, 
and to apply to it with all the energy that the gravity of the circumstances demands 
an effective cauterization. It is the duty of the inspectors to apply all their energy 
and ability to the task of decapitating this hydra that poisons all its surroundings, 
and it is the duty of the governor to take the first precautions. In this connection 
mere verbal expression of unconditional adhesion to our principles is not enough, 
there must be deeds and actual proofs.’ 


Report on Administration. Regarding the administration of edu- 
cation, as provided by the Organic Decree of 1880, and as it worked 
out in practice, the same report says: 


If the latter (the 1880 decree) appeared upon the surface to show due deference to 
local authorities in matters of public instruction, in its practical workings it placed 
everything in the hands of the governor. As already mentioned, local juntas were 
composed of the alcade, a municipal councilman,the priest and three heads of families, 
or more, according to the population of the district. Without reference to the size 
of the latter, the persons chosen to fill these positions were, as a rule, those who were 
least eminent for their intelligence and education, and it was not unusual to find 
members of the local board who knew neither how to read nor how to write. So it 
happened that the administration of the schools fell practically into the hands of the 
alcades, the councilman and the priest, or rather into the hands of the first of these, 
who, as president of the junta of instruction and of the ayuntamiento, the two 
bodies controlling school matters, possessed practically absolute authority. This 


56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 135. 


88 Education in Porto Rico 


was especially the case where, in many instances, the alcade was appointed by the 
Governor. The Provincial Junta, whose principal members were officials of the 
administration, was a bureaucratic body, without any independence or prestige in 
the minds of the public, and extremely docile to all the orders of the President. 
Thus it happened that the Governor exercised practically absolute authority in the 
appointment and dismissal of teachers, in the creation and suspension of additional 
institutions, and, in a word, in all that referred to public instruction.*! 


Report on the Teaching Force. With reference to the teaching 
personnel, the report says: 


If we consider the teaching force, we find as a rule that certificates and appoint- 
ments were given for political rather than for professional qualifications. In an 
examination the recommendation of an influential patron held more weight than the 
merits of an examinee. People fancied that these abuses would be corrected when 
the normal schools were established, in 1891, but in a short time these too were 
discredited, and as the number of pupils that entered them was very limited, the 
examination requirements became more lax and recommendations came to have more 
and more influence with the teachers. We do not wish to be understood as saying 
that all teachers were worthless. There were many, as there are at the present 
time, with real ability and true devotion to their work. But the greater number of 
them were exactly the reverse. In a report presented to General Eaton the 20th 
of January, 1899, by a teacher and inspector, Mr. José Francisco Diaz, speaking of 
the condition of Porto Rican teachers before the occupation of the island by the 
Americans says: “We have here, as a rule, good men and women teachers. If 
there are occasions where they fail to fulfill their duty this is caused by the neglect 
and disregard which they have suffered. They were not paid, they were not re- 
spected or encouraged in their work. They were not provided with means of in- 
struction. Most of them occupied mere huts in place of houses, and, to cap the 
climax, they were persecuted upon suspicion of political and religious heresy and 
were not allowed to develop any form of instruction in harmony with the results of 
scientific study and experience. In this absolute lack of any system, which, so far 
as the public welfare is concerned does not exist, the teacher naturally has at times 
deserted his calling, or has failed to pursue it in the right manner. Few occupy 
themselves in developing the observation and judgment of the child, in training his 
reason, in guiding his imagination, in cultivating his aesthetic ideal, in forming his 
character, in a word, in anything that does not have an immediate effect in making 


him pass his examination’. °? 


Report on the Normal School. 'The committee which investigated 
the work of the normal school for women in 1899 reports: 


This school was founded in 1890, and has an attendance of 50 students. For 
admission there is an examination in the subjects taught in the elementary schools. 
A course of three years is required for an examination for permission to teach in the 
elementary schools. The time is chiefly occupied with academic studies and only 
a limited course is given in methods. A practice school is required by law, but prac- 
tical training is neglected. A candidate, to obtain a certificate for teachingin an 


156th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 134. 
856th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 136. 


Reorganization of Elementary Education (1880-1898) 89 


auxiliary school, or rural school, must pass an examination during the months of 
June or September, in Spanish Grammar, arithmetic, reading, writing and dicta- 
tion exercises ... The school is practically without teaching material, there 
being but a few maps and charts. There is neither laboratory nor library and but 
few text books or other essentials to school work. 


With reference to the instruction in the normal school, the commit- 
tee says: 


The pupils of this school were taught without books, by lectures, which were 
dictated one day and recited the next, and by conversation. The reason given for 
the absence of books was that the girls were too poor to buy them. All the work 
seemed of the most elementary character. The note-books were very poorly kept, 
in pencil, and there was no evidence seen that they had ever been corrected. Stu- 
dents attend very irregularly and indeed it would seem that it is not a matter of 
much importance whether they attend or not, as all in time are graduated. There 
are some lectures given on pedagogy, but nothing was seen to convince the com- 


mission that this school can prepare anyone to teach, even in the most elementary 
branches.” 


This commission made no report on the normal school for men, 
but the same conditions prevailed in this as in the girls’ school. The 
general characteristics of the whole system, if it could be called such, 
was lack of interest and therefore neglect. 

Report on General Educational Conditions. Mr. Enrique C. Her- 
nandez, in his report already referred to, gives a general view of 
educational conditions in 1898, in the following words: 


It is seen that public instruction was in the same position in Porto Rico when 
Spanish sovereignty ceased that it had been eighteen years ago when the organic 
decree of 1880 went into effect. The larger number of schools and the larger attend- 
ance of pupils indicated in the statistics, signified little when the organization of the 
schools and the methods of instruction were completely neglected, and there was no 
provision made for school buildings or for any of the aids necessary to effective in- 
struction. Admission to the public schools, while open to both sexes in the town, 
was only granted to boys in the country. Co-education was regarded as a very 
dangerous experiment, and as there was no rural schools for girls, the latter naturally 
did not participate in the benefits of education. Speaking of the necessity of es- 
tablishing schools of this character, General Despujol, in one of his letters to the 
colonial minister, says: ‘As a general proposition I favor establishing rural schools 
for girls. As arule, population is scattered in remote and inaccessible places with- 
out religious instruction or moral restraint, and family unions are formed without the 
sanction of the sacraments or of the laws, and are of a more or less temporary charac- 
ter; so that it may be said that the family, in our sense of the word, does not exist 
in the rural districts of Porto Rico. This is, perhaps the principal obstacle to its 
future progress. It is easy to understand what an influence to the advancement of 
Christian civilization would be a school established among these girls, who are one 


856th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 24. 
“56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 25-26. 


90 Education in Porto Rico 


time to be the mothers of a new generation. But to have these children attend these 
distant schools, under conditions now existing, would be, in the opinion of many 
people whom I have consulted, occasion of greater evil than good, and a detrimental 
influence on the morals of the community! These same conditions were reported 
a thousand times during the eighteen years that the decree was in force, and indicate 
how little real study was given to the question of instruction by the Government, 
whose main interest was that its statistical reports sent to Madrid should always 
indicate some increase in the number of pupils and schools. The principal argument 
against co-education was the great danger that would result from the association of 
the sexes in the schools and the long distance from the homes of the children to those 
establishments; but at the same time that the educational administrators presented 
this argument they recognized the fact that the moral condition of the rural popula- 
tion could hardly be worse than it was then, even though co-education and schools 
for girls had been established. They never stopped to consider whether co-educa- 
tion and girls’ schools might not have diminished the evil that they so severely cen- 
sured. ® : 

Statistical Data for the Period. ‘The statistics available will give 
a clearer view of conditions during the period under consideration 
and in 1898. On July 1; 1881, at the beginning of the period, there 
were 384 schools for boys and 117 for girls, a total of 501 schools. 
There attended these schools 10,025 boys and 6,095 girls, a total of 
24,120. The expense for these schools were, for personnel 191,424 
pesos; for supplies, 71,245 pesos, or a total of 262,669 pesos. 

On January 1, 1886, there were 408 schools for boys and 127 for 
girls, making a total of 535 schools. There attended these schools 
18,194 boys and 7,183 girls, a total of 25,377 pupils. The expenses 
were: Personnel, 221,648 pesos; supplies, 88,768 pesos, a total of 
310,434 pesos. Besides there were 11 schools for adults, with an 
attendance of 433 pupils; 38 private schools, with an attendance of 
1,670 pupils. The total number of schools, both private and public, 
was 584 with a total attendance of 27,480 pupils.” 

On June 30, 1898, there were in existance in Porto Rico 380 public 
schools for boys, 148 for girls, 1 for adults, and 26 private schools, 
having an enrollment of 44,861 pupils. The total amount annually 
expended, including the subsidy granted by the insular government 
to private schools, was 309,810.75 pesos or $185,886.45.% 

Summary. Although these reports present a very dark picture of 
educational conditions in Porto Rico at the time of the American 
occupation, and those conditions were the fruits of the 1880 decree, 


%56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 1386-137. 

%Moreno: Estadistica, Puerto Rico, 2 de Julio de 1881. 
Infiesta, op. cit., p. 36. 

War Department, Report of the Census of Porto Rico, 1899. p, 72. 


Reorganization of Elementary Education (1880-1898) 91 


in operation for almost twenty years, yet, in evaluating educational 
progress, conditions before 1880 must be kept in mind as they form 
the basis forcomparison. It must not be forgotten either that Porto 
Rico was a Spanish colony and that educational conditions could 
hardly be expected to have been better than in Spain. The tendency 
of the government reports made at the time of the American occupa- 
tion is to make a comparison, having in mind conditions in the United 
States; but Porto Rico was a Spanish colony and not an American 
colony before 1898 and the traditions of her culture were very dif- 
ferent from those of the United States. 

In spite of the backward educational conditions presented, a care- 
ful perusal of the facts revealed in this period will show distinct educa- 
tional progress. School organization, poor as it was, with elementary 
and superior schools overlapping each other, was better than before, 
for although the decree of 1865 tried to organize the schools, its 
provisions were not put into operation for any length of time. In- 
terest in education was manifested more than before and more at- 
tention was given to the establishment of schools, both urban and 
rural, as well as to their support. 

While school inspection had received very little attention before, 
and was generally left to the local authorities, during this period 
special experienced teachers were appointed as school inspectors, who 
actually inspected the schools and reported to the government. The 
work of the inspectors left much to be desired, but they did their work 
as efficiently as their Spanish colleagues in the mother country. 

The first and only normal schools in the history of the Island were 
established during this period, which was a forward step in teacher 
training. Poor as the training was, it was something which had not 
been done before, and as good as the training received by the teachers 
in Spain. Considering their preparation, teachers were as well paid 
as in Spain and other countries, while the pupils’ fees and presents 
increased their salaries considerably. ' 

Much has been said and written against the efficiency of the teachers 
before the American occupation, and the major part of that criticism 
is just, judged from American standards for teachers. But the 
teachers of the time had no American standards to compete with or 
live up to, and it must not be forgotten that there were good teachers 
as well as poor ones. 

Unlike today in Porto Rico and in the United States, teaching was 
a profession and not a stepping stone to something else, often called 


92 Education in Porto Rico 


‘something higher.”” Men and women prepared themselves to teach 
as a life work and became old in the classroom. Educational con- 
ditions in 1898, although backward, were as good as in Spain and as 
good as could be expected in a Spanish colony. 


CHAPTER VI 


SECONDARY AND PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION DURING 
THE SPANISH REGIME 
(1820-1898) 


Secondary and Professional Education in 1818. The state of second- 
ary and professional education in 1818 is described by Don Pedro 
Tomas de Cérdoba in the following words: 


What is really needed is the Seminary of the Diocese. Porto Rico lacks such an 
important irstitution, and her children have to beg for knowledge so necessary to 
society in other countries. If it were not for the Franciscan and Dominican brethren, 
who so commendably devote themselves to the instruction of the young, there would 
be no schools to mold the minds of the young men and to teach them to be men, 
useful to their country and to the fatherland. Formerly the Porto Rican youth 
received their education in the universities of Santo Domingo and Caracas, but due 
to the misfortune these countries have gone through lately, the Porto Ricans have 
been deprived of this benefit; and although the studies in these universities have 
been re-established, yet it will be some time before they will have the standard they 
used to have.! 


Secondary and Professional Education, 1820-1823. With the rise 
of the Liberals in Spain on March 12, 1820, the schools of the Church 
lost their government support and were closed, thus leaving Porto 
Rico without a school where her children could pursue a secondary 
or professional education. ‘The state of education between 1820 and 
1823 is portrayed in the following paragraphs from a report of the 
San Juan ayuntamiento a few years later, urging the necessity of 
establishing a good college in the Island. 


The creation of the college is necessary, for there has always been a lack of oppor- 
tunity for study here, there having been no other than that furnished by the con- 
vents of Santo Domingo and San Francisco, where only Latin, philosophy and 
theology were taught. To obtain instruction in other sciences the young men were 
obliged to attend the university of the Spanish island of Santo Domingo or that of 
CarAcas, which but few were able to do on account of the large expense of travel and 
living away from their homes. 

But the lot of the youths and their affectionate parents was still harder when they 


Ide Cérdoba, op. cit., p. 320. 
(93) 


94 Education in Porto Rico 


found themselves deprived of these unsatisfactory and costly resources through the 

transfer of Santo Domingo to foreign domination, the peninsula also invaded in 

1808, and the province of Cardcas overcome by the melancholy and lamentable 

19th of April, 1820... 

From that time the youth of this island have lamented the loss of all means of 
education ... Afterward came the terrible calamity of March 1820 (The Con- 
stitutional or Liberal Cortes of the year 1820), 

Here the cloisters even were deserted, the classes in Latin, philosophy and theology 
were ended, and youth bemoaned bitterly its intellectual desolation. Wealthy 
parents found neither aid nor resource for the education of their children, who re- 
mained here isolated and reduced to equality with the unfortunate and helpless. . 
or they found themselves impelled by necessity or unhappy fate to send them to 
North America to be educated as well as possible, the remedy being worse than the 
disease itself which they were trying. to avoid. 

Educational Agencies. After 1825 the schools were restored to the 
church orders, which continued their work as before. In the mean- 
time the Economic Society had begun its activities in education, both 
primary and secondary. These two agencies, the Church and the 
Economic Society, other private organizations, and the government, 
were the agencies active in secondary and professional education in 
Porto Rico during the nineteenth century. To facilitate this study, 
this chapter will treat the activities of these three agencies under 
three sections, that is, the activites of the church, private initiative, 
and government activity. 


A. ACTIVITIES OF THE CHURCH 


Before the rise of the Liberals in Spain, in 1819, the Franciscan — 
friars founded in their convent in San Juan a chair of theology, which 
continued until 1839.3 After 1823 they opened their schools again 
and began to improve them. In January 1825, Vicar-general An- 
drade founded a Latin school with chairs of Latin, philosophy, moral 
and dogmatic theology, and civil and canon law.‘ This school did 
not last long, for in 1826 the bishop of Porto Rico, Dr. Rodriguez de 
Olmedo, was appointed to the archbishopric of Cuba, while Dr. Don 
Pedro Gutierrez de Cos substituted him in the diocese of Porto Rico. 

He began immediately to establish a theological seminary and soon 
merged the chairs of the Latin school into the diocesean seminary, which 


*Students who studied in the United States were charged with returning full of radi- 
cal and pernicious ideas. 56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 112. 

*56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 111. 

‘There is a difference of opinion as to the date of founding this school and the 
curriculum it offered. As to the date, two authorities give 1825, while one gives 
1824; Brau gives only the following chairs: Philosophy, dogmatic theology and eccle- 
siastical liturgy. 56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 118. 


Secondary and Professional Education (1820-1898) 95 


he established, and which was opened to the public at the beginning 
of the academic year 1832. In the autumn of that year a building 
was erected near the episcopal mansion at the cost of 41,000 pesos, 
to house the seminary. Among the professors in the seminary were 
two notable Porto Ricans, friar Angel de la Concepcion Vasquez, 
born in Juncos, who was the first rector of the Seminary and Dr. 
Juan Francisco Jimenez, a native of Cabo-Rojo.® 

Although the seminaries in all countries are founded primarily to 
prepare young men for the priesthood, thus having the stamp of a 
professional school, yet they are in fact secondary schools as well as 
professional schools. The age of entrance at the seminary at San 
Juan was twelve years; the child pursued a preparatory course before 
he entered into the studies of the priesthood. Many boys who 
entered the seminary left at the end of their preparatory course, not 
wishing to continue the clerical profession; hence many professional 
men received their preparation for the university at the diocesean 
seminary. 

Los Escolapios. In 1837 the Escolapian Brethren, (Escolapios), a 
teaching order of the Church, opened in San Juan a college called 
““Liceo de San Juan” or San Juan Lyceum, which was inaugurated 
with marked enthusiasm. The college received both boarding and 
day students, thus giving an opportunity to people outside of San 
Juan to send their children to this college and be cared for by the 
priests. It offered courses in primary and secondary education. 
The secondary curriculum embraced the following subjects: Elemen- 
tary algebra and geometry, geography, Latin, rhetoric, French, Italian, 
drawing, music, surveying and commercial arithmetic. 

The College extended its influence and opened another “‘liceo”’ in 
San Juan, and still another in Mayagtiez.6 This order of the Church 
was active all through the century and toward the end received con- 
siderable material help from the government. In 1895 it opened a 
school in Santurce, under the name of “‘Escuelas Pias,”’ in the building 
formerly occupied by the Jesuit fathers. They received an appropri- 
ation from the government of 12,940 pesos per annum and taught 
the primary and secondary subjects.’ 

Cooperative Activities of Church and Government. The activities of 
the religious orders continued all during the century; such activities, 
however, are so mingled with the official activities of the government 


®Brau, op. cit., p. 243. 656th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 114. 
TIbid., p. 140. . 


96 Education in Porto Rico 


that it seems more logical to consider them under the section on 
government initiative, as the recognition and subsidy from the 
government made them more efficient and broadened their usefulness. 
There is another institution, which although subsidized by the govern- 
ment to the extent of 3000 pesos a year, had its sphere of action pri- 
marily within the Church and should be considered in this section. 
It was the College of the Mothers of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, a 
school for girls, opened in 1880, and located in Santurce in a building 
constructed especially for its use. 

General Information About the Church Schools. Some information 
of 1895 is available regarding the two preceding schools. The di- 
rector of the Institute of Secondary Education, in the annual report 
of that institution, says of the Escolapian Brethren: 


The men who make up this religious order by virtue of their moderate customs, 
excessive modesty and absolute divorce from civil and political strife, have deserved 
always the consideration of our governments, to the extent that when in 1834 the 
mob desecrated the convents in Madrid, and in some of the provinces, and in 1835 
the government decreed the expulsion of the regular clergy, the only religious order 
that deserved the respect of these, was that of the ‘Escuelas Pias.’ 

Referring to this institution as well as to that of the Sisters, he 
said: 

Santurce, the most favored barrio of this capital, counts today, thanks to the 
magnanimity of Providence, with two colleges; the college of the Mothers of the 
Sacred Heart of Jesus, where our daughters acquire sound instruction, based on the 
principles of religion and the family, and that of the Escolapian Brethrem, where our 
children will receive physical, intellectual and religious and moral education, equal 
to that given under modern methods of teaching in the most advanced countries.® 


B. Private INITIATIVE 


All through the century there were private schools about which 
little is known. Wealthy parents kept private tutors for their 
children or sent them to Cuba, Spain, and other parts of Europe, 
and even to the United States, to pursue secondary and university 
studies. 

Private Educational Agencies. When the private educational ac- 
tivities are considered, the Economic Society of the Friends of the 
Country stands out more prominently than any other corporation, 
society or individual, for it was this society (the agency) which gave 


8Instituto de Segunda Ensefianza de Puerto Rico. Memoria del curso de 1894— 
1895, leida en la solemne apertura del curso de 1895 a 1896, por Don Santiago Hita y 
Comas, Catedrdtico numerario y Secretario, Precedida del discurso leido en dicho 
acto por Don Jaime Comas y Muntaner, Catedrdtico Numerario y Director del In- 
stituto, San Juan, P. R. Tip. Boletin Mercantil, 1896, p. 3. 


Secondary and Professional Education (1820-1898) 97 


inspiration and life to every educational movement during the major 
part of the nineteenth century, and it was this society that contributed 
most towards improving education, not only by its activities, but 
also by its moral support of everything which aimed to lift the moral 
and intellectual level of the people of the Island. 

However, there were other private agencies which must be men- 
tioned in a study of secondary and professional education. These 
are:—The Economic Board of Public Works and Commerce (Junta 
Econdémica de Fomento y Comercio), and the activities of the Athe- 
neum of Porto Rico (El Ateneo de Puerto Rico). Private institu- 
tions allied with the Institute of Secondary Education will be con- 
sidered in relation to that mstitution. 

Actwities of the Economic Society in Secondary Education. The 
origin of the Economic Society of the Friends of the Country, as well 
as its activities before 1820, have already been mentioned in Chap- 
ter II. Although it had a program, it did not accomplish much, 
owing to the political conditions at that time. It began its activities 
during the government of the Liberals, when Porto Rico became desti- 
tute of any means of education. In 1822 it established chairs of 
mathematics, drawing and grammar; in 1823 a chair of jurisprudence, 
and in 1824 another chair of grammar. The chairs of mathematics 
and drawing continued for a long time; not so the others, which 
were revived from time to time, but were not as constant in their 
success as were the first two.° 

El Padre Rufo. In the latter part of the year 1832 Father Rufo 
Manuel Fernandez was appointed canon of the San Juan cathedral. 
““E] Padre Rufo,”’ as he was called by his pupils, admirers and friends, 
was professor of experimental physics in the University of Santiago, 
Santiago, Spain, when the absolutist reaction of 1823 persecuted all 
those who had taken part directly or indirectly in the revolutionary 
movement. Because of his political and scientific ideas, Padre Rufo 
was a victim of the reaction and was left without his professorship. 
He was persecuted, imprisoned, and wandered about for many years 
until 1832, when he was sent to Porto Rico. As soon as he arrived 
he surrounded himself with youths whom he initiated in the natural 
sciences. He sent to foreign countries for the necessary apparatus for 
a physical and chemical laboratory. The Economic Society availed 
itself of the opportunity and encouraged and supported Padre Rufo in 
his work. Under the protection of the society he labored for many 


56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 113. 


98 Education in Porto Rico 


years in the Island, contributed a great deal to education, inspired 
many young men to pursue a higher education, guiding them in their 
pursuits.!° Mr. Enrique C. Hernandez, already quoted, says the 
following about Padre Rufo and his work: 


A man of vast knowledge and unlimited love of education, to which he consecrated 
his life and his money; a broad mind, in which the liberal ideas of his epoch germi- 
nated quickly; a heart always open to whatever signified progress and aid for the 
destitute. 


In 1844, when the Count of Mirasol came to the Island, as its 
Governor General, the Economic Society was at the height of its 
usefulness. To the chairs of mathematics and drawing already 
mentioned it had added several others in the course of the twenty 
years, and at this time it offered the following course: Arithmetic, 
algebra, elementary geography, drawing, French, English, rhetoric, 
geography, physical chemistry and commercial arithmetic. The 
Diocesean Seminary at this time was run down, while the courses 
of the Economic Society were most popular and successful. The 
Society was very much in need of adequate quarters to hold its classes, 
so in 1843 the Seminary and the Economic Society were authorized 
to unite. The Society held its classes on the lower floor of the 
Seminary building and was attended by some of the Seminary stu- 
dents,” in spite of the fact that the ecclesiastical chapter had already 
pronounced its anathema on the study of science. 

Attempts to Establish a College. Father Rufo recommended to the 
Economic Society the establishment of a college in the Island, where 
university studies might be pursued. The Count of Mirasol received 
the idea with much enthusiasm, and in June 27, 1844, the Society 
considered the project in one of its sessions. It was decided to es- 
tablish a college, to be called the Central College. As there were no 
means to establish and maintain such an institution, a popular subscrip- 
tion was opened by the Governor General, which amounted to 23,796 
pesos, of which 8,659 were collected the following year, and the Econom- 
ic Society offered to contribute 1,600 pesos annually toward its 
maintenance. 

There were no teachers for the college, so a member of the 
Economic Society, Don Florentino Cumbernat, proposed that the 
Society should send young men to Europe to study agronomy on 


10Figueroa, S., Ensayo Biogrdfico de los que mas han contribuido al progreso de Puerto 
Rico, pp. 127-36. 

156th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 114. 

256th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 115. Also compare Elzaburu, op. cit., pp. 16-17. 


Secondary and Professional Education (1820-1898) 99 


condition that on their return they should teachin thecollege. Father 
Rufo promised to send and support his two best pupils; one of 
them was to study new methods of teaching in Spain, France and 
Belgium, andjthe other the natural sciences. Early in 1846, four 
young men set out for Spain, Eduardo Micauet, Julian Nufiez, José 
Julian Acosta, and Roman Baldorioty de Castro. The first two died 
in Madrid soon after their arrival and the other two returned to the 
Island in 1852 and began work for the welfare of their fellow citizens. 
This was the only practical result of the movement toward the es- 
tablishment of the college, for the idea of the college died out, and in 
1848 the money collected was returned to the subscribers.” 

Petition for Secondary Education and Results. In 1846 the Economic 
Society petitioned the government to establish at its own expense the 
studies of secondary education as in Spain. ‘The report of the At- 
torney General the following year shows what became of the petition: 

On the 10th of September, 1846, the subscriber had the honor of giving his opinion 
to the ex-Sefior Captain General, Count of Mirasol. . . .He thought that there were 
great difficulties in the way of giving the necessary breadth to instruction and that 
new literary establishments should not be considered, although primary instruction 
should be provided, and we should try to give the natives of the island teaching 
auxiliary to commerce and agriculture. Today he will add that it should not be 
forgotten that in this capital there is a seminary (Consiliar) where, besides the in- 
struction especially pertaining to this institution, they teach mathematics, drawing, 
the French and English languages, physics and chemistry, whose professors are 
paid by the Economic Society of the Friends of the Country. This establishment, 
properly organized, would satisfy the necessities of the epoch very well, without at 
present going to the expense of any others, which could not be sustained, owing to 
the want of necessary means. Therefore, primary instruction and a part of the 
branches of secondary instruction should be the only basis of any plan of studies 
which may be formed."4 

The Jesuits. The Economic Society continued its classes in the 
lower floor of the Diocesean Seminary until 1858, when the Jesuits 
took charge of secondary education in the Island. The influence of 
the Jesuits began to spread more and more, and little by little the 
professors of the Seminary and the teachers of the Economic Society” 
were turned out of the Seminary building. As the work of the Jesuits 
began to supply the needs of secondary education, the work of the 
Economic Society began to decline. However, it continued its work 
of supporting the activities it had already begun, and gave advice 
concerning educational policies. In its last years, toward the end of 


856th Cong. S. D. 363, pp. 115-16; Brau, op. cit., p: 252. 
“56th Cotig. S. D. 363, p. 116. bThid., p. 122. 


100 Education in Porto Rico 


the Spanish dominion, it established various free courses, among 
them book-keeping and other studies required of naval machinists.!® 

Asociacion de Damas para La Instruccion de la Mujer. In 1886 
there was a movement among some influential women to estab- 
lish an association for the education of women. ‘The association was 
formed, with the following aim: ““To provide the daughters of poor 
families, or moderately situated families, who wish an education, the 
means to acquire it, leading toward a profession such as teachers in 
public or private schools.”” After the adoption of a constitution 
the matter was dropped. 

La Sociedad Protectora de la Inteligencia. Although Porto Rico 
never had a university, yet all through its history university courses 
had been demanded by those who were not able to send their chil- 
dren to the Spanish universities. The chief reason the government 
gave against the establishment of such an institution was lack of 
funds. As a refutation to this argument, in 1879 the physicians, 
lawyers and pharmacists of the Island petitioned the government at 
Madrid for authority to establish a university, offering their services 
to teach gratuitously. The request was refused.!® Those interested 
in the secondary and higher education of the youth continued their 
efforts and founded in 1880 “‘La Sociedad Protectora de la Inteligen- 
cia,” The Society for the Protection of the Intelligence. This 
society continued its activities until secondary and higher education 
was provided by the government of the United States. During the 
years of its existence it provided means for many young men to se- 
cure a secondary and higher education in either the United States or 
Europe.!® 

Attempt to Establish University Studies. The efforts to establish 
university studies continued and in April, 1887, the matter was 
considered by the Provincial Deputation, the members of which, 
after long discussion and debate, ended with the following resolution: 
This body will “remind the Supreme Government that it should act 
promptly on the petition to establish a university in the island.’’?° 
The same year there was a movement to establish a private university 
allied to the university of Havana, that is, the students were to re- 
ceive their instruction in the Island, but as registered students of the 
University of Havana, and were to go there to be examined. As 

656th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 140. 

“Reglanemto de la Asociacién de Damas para la Instruccién de la Mujer, p. 5. 


1856th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 140-41. 1956th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 141. 
*0Elzaburu, op. cit., pp. 27-28. 


Secondary and Professional Education (1820-1898) 101 


there was no place to hold the classes, Don Manuel Elzaburu, Presi- 
dent of the Porto Rican Atheneum, proposed that this institution be 
made the center of the university studies.?! 

El Ateneo. The Atheneum is a scientific-literary society composed 
of members from the intellectual class. Itisacenter of culture where 
conferences and lectures are given and every effort made for the ad- 
vancement of learning. The Porto Rican Atheneum was founded in 
1876 and from its beginning it has labored for the intellectual progress 
of the Island, supported several chairs of learning, opened its hall to 
all persons able and willing to give public lectures, and has held an- 
nual scientific and literary contests. 

Uniwersity Studies in the Atheneum. The proposal of the President 
of the Atheneum to establish university studies within its walls was 
accepted. The officers drew up a plan as a basis to be followed and 
sent it to Madrid for the approval of the Central Government.” 
The government offered to pay the travelling expenses of a committee 
of professors from the University of Havana to come to Porto Rico 
to examine the students, thus facilitating matters still more. The 
university studies under the official name of Institution of Higher 
Studies were begun in the Atheneum at the beginning of the academic 
year 1888-1889."4 

The inauguration took place October 10, 1888, with an address He 
the president of the Atheneum. Thirty-three students registered the 


~ 21Elzaburu, op. cit., p. 30. 2Thid., p. 30. BT bid pos 
4Faculty of Philosophy and Letters: 
Metaphysics: Don Julio Ma. Padilla, Licentiate in Laws and Philosophy and Let- 
ters. 
Universal History: Don José Julian Acosta, Licentiate in Sciences. 
_ General Literature: Don Alberto Regulez y Sanz del Rio, Doctor of Philosophy and 
Letters. 
Greek Language: Don Enrique Alvarez Perez, Licentiate in Philosophy and Letters. 
Faculty of Laws. 
Metaphysics: Sr. Padilla. 
Spanish and General Literature: Dr. Regulez. 
Critical History of Spain: Don Manuel Tenés, Licentiate in Philosophy and Letters. 
Faculty of Medicine. 
Advanced Physics: Don Jaime Anunexi, Industrial Engineer. 
General Chemistry: Don José de Jesus Tizol, Doctor of Medicine and Surgery. 
Mineralogy and Botany: Don Agustin Stahl,-Doctor of Medicine and Surger y. 
Zoology: Dr. Stahl. 
Faculty of Sciences. 
Mathematical Analysis: Don Juan José Potous, Colonel (retired )of Inf. 
Geometry: Don Juan B. Rodriguez, Civil Engineer. 
General Chemistry: Dr. Tizol. 
Mineralogy and Botany: Dr. Stahl. 
Languages 
French: Don Leonides Villalén. 
German: Dr. Stahl. Etzaburu, op. cit., pp. 44-46. 


102 Education in Porto Rico 


first year in the different faculties, and twenty-two in the second year. 
The university functioned for two years offermg university work, but 
as it proved financially burdensome to the government to bring pro- 
fessors from Havana to examine students and as there were also 
many unanticipated expenses, it was found necessary to confine the 
instruction to the secondary school subjects preparatory to admission 
to the University of Havana. After the academic year 1890-1891, 
the students pursued the secondary subjects and the government sent 
them to Havana to be examined. Since there were at this time the 
official Institute of Secondary Education and many other private 
secondary schools, these courses of the Atheneum im the secondary 
school subjects were not needed; as a result interest began to decline 
and the Institution of Higher Studies met a natural death. The 
most valuable and practical course offered by the Atheneum was one 
for midwives, conducted by Doctors Hernandez, Barbosa and Tizol.?5 


C. GoOvERNMENT ACTIVITIES 


Belatedness of Government Activities. When it comes to govern- 
ment activity in secondary and professional education, the first thing 
noted is its belatedness, Attention has already been called to the 
efforts on the part of citizens of the Island ever since the middle of 
the eighteenth century, to establish a university or university studies. 
Refusal from the Madrid government was the answer to the pe- 
titions of the islanders. At last, in 1840, by royal order, the gov- 
ernment authorized the establishment of classes in law. On the fourth 
of September of the same year, the Governor General wrote the 
Lawyers Association for information on the subjects which were to 
be taught and the text books needed. Examinations were held the 
next year, and at least one, Don Benito Alonzo Diaz Perez, was 
authorized to practice law, as he was admitted to the Porto Rican 
bar, May 27, 1841.% Very little is known of the later history of 
these classes and like other movements of the same nature, it passed 
away unnoticed. 

Royal Sub-delegation of Pharmacy. It was not so, however, with 
the faculty of pharmacy, established in 1841, by the Royal Sub- 
delegation of Pharmacy. This faculty continued its work until 
December 1, 1898, when by order of the American Military Governor, 
it was abolished. The work of this body was confined mainly to 
examining candidates of pharmacy. The candidates generally studied 


56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 141. 6Elzaburu, op. cit., p. 21. 


Secondary and Professional Education (1820-1898) 103 


by themselves or with some pharmacist working in the drug store, 
and thus received practical training. When they were ready for ex- 
amination they appeared before the sub-delegation of pharmacy. 
Many young men thus prepared themselves at home for their life 
work.”” 

Government Recognition of Church School. The next government 
move was for secondary education, May 3, 1851. By royal order, 
the government authorized the Seminary of the diocese to grant the 
degree of bachelor of philosophy upon the completion of a secondary 
course of study equal to that required in Spain.?® 

The Seminary was not prospering and something had to be done 
to save it. The authority of the government to grant degrees did 
not help very much, and the studies offered by the Economie Society 
proved more popular with the youth than those of the Seminary. 
A step forward was taken when the Jesuits were authorized to 
establish a secondary school in connection with the Seminary in 1858. 
One of the reasons for the establishment of these secondary studies 
was “‘to prevent the young men from going to the United States to 
secure their education, on account of the radical and pernicious 
ideas that they brought back with them.’’° 

The Jesuits. The support of the Jesuit school is clearly set forth 
in the following paragraph: 


Convinced of the feasibility and immediate necessity of establishing a secondary 
institute organized with the courses now required in Spain, in order that it may 
qualify students for the universities and institutions of the Kingdom, we believe 
that there is no measure more proper to secure this result than to found a Jesuit 
college to take supervision of such instruction, to be supported from the funds real- 
ized from the lease of the property of the monastic orders which is now at the dis- 
posal of the royal treasury, and with the endowments for masses and anniversaries, 
and for the support of shrines and other pious objects which have accrued to the 
benefit of the religious corporations of Santo Domingo and San Francisco.*° 


Thus was secondary education officially established, but it must be 
kept in mind that it was official because it was recognized by the 
government, but the administration of the school and the teachers 
were under the Jesuits and therefore a Church school. However, 
the young men of the Island had a place to go to school and their 
work was as valid as that of the state secondary schools. 

The Jesuits were allowed to use the Seminary building, together 
with the Seminary and the Economie Society. They became stronger 


ZIbid., p. 21. 856th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 121. 
297ind., p. 122. 30Tbid. 


104 Education in Porto Rico 


and stronger, began to gain the confidence of the people, their students 
seemed to get results, and soon they became the teachers of the best 
young men, for the boys that went to the Jesuits as students were 
from the best homes of the Island and from the moderately or well 
to do rather than from the poorer classes. 

As the Jesuits progressed the Economic Society began to decline, 
and even the doctors of the Seminary, the teachers of theology, were 
obliged to give up their classrooms to the new teachers, who remained 
masters of the situation, settled in the building of the Seminary, and 
remained there with much success until 1878, when the insular gov- 
ernment built for them a new building in Santurce.*! Their success 
was constant except during the period of the Republic, when they 
met with reverses from the Government, but this was not due to the 
lack of efficiency or effort but to political conditions. The Jesuits 
were the first to organize secondary education in the Island on a 
stable basis; they were the first to have a definite program for second- 
ary education, they were the first to provide teachers especially pre- 
pared for their work, and who devoted all of their time to the chil- 
dren; they were the first who made teaching and nothing else their 
business, hence their success. 

Sporadic Activities of the Government. From 1852 to 1860 there 
was a movement on the part of the government to establish a tech- 
nical school. Although the school was needed, the purpose was to 
create positions for José Julian Acosta and Roman Baldorioty de 
Castro, the two young men who had studied abroad and whom the 
government had promised to employ at the completion of their 
university course and return to the Island. As the young men re- 
turned from Spain and there was nothing for them to do, since the 
proposed Central College never materialized, the Governor General 
ordered the establishment and support of chairs in chemistry and 
mechanic arts, to be filled by the two young men concerned and to 
be the nucleus for an Industrial School. The following year they also 
taught classes in commercial and agricultural geography and botany, 
which were to be paid by the Economic Society and by the Board of 
Public Works and Commerce of San Juan (Junta de Fomento y 
Comercio). This board also planned to add courses in agriculture 
and commerce.” 

In 1857, the Madrid Government ordered the establishment of a 
special school of surveying and architecture, and it was thought: ad- 


31I bid. 2Tbid., pp. 122-23. 


Secondary and Professional Education (1820-1898) 105 


visable to gather all the scattered efforts of individuals and societies 
to make one good school. At last in 1860 a project was adopted for 
the establishment of such a school but there were not enough funds to 
support it, nor was there a building to house it. The project was 
abandoned as impracticable, but it was reeommended to continue the 
classes in agriculture, commerce, navigation and surveying. The 
report was submitted to the provincial and Madrid governments, 
but the negotiations ended and no school was founded.** 

Escuela Filotécnica. In the meantime Acosta and Baldorioty de 
Castro continued their activities in behalf of the moral and intellectual 
uplift of the people, but the political conditions of the time required 
much of their attention and they could not devote much time to teach- 
ing. After the restoration, when political conditions were quieter, in 1878 
Baldorioty de Castro tried to found a school in Mayagtez under the 
name of “Escuela Filotécnica.’’ His aim was to establish a regular 
primary superior school, but with the privilege to make his own 
curriculum, which was more secondary than primary. After much 
correspondence and arguments pro and con, he was denied permis- 
sion to establish the school.*4 

Secondary Education During the Period of Political Unrest. The 
Civil Institute of 1873, established during the Republic, had a 
short life, not having time to instruct its pupils one whole year be- 
fore General Sanz suppressed it. A secondary school after the type 
of those in Spain was not founded permanently until 1882, when the 
Institute of Secondary Education was founded, upon the model and 
upon the same basis as the Spanish institutions of the same category. 
In the meantime the Jesuits were in charge of secondary education 
in the Island, but their conflicts with the Liberals during the last 
two decades had hampered their popularity and had built a breach 
between them which widened more and more as the people of Porto 
Rico struggled for political independence. The need of an official 
institution for the province and separated from the Church, was evi- 
dent. 

Institute of Secondary Instruction. The Civil Provincial Institute 
of Secondary Instruction was founded by royal order, October 20, 
1882, when the Governor General received a cable from the Minister 
of Ultramar, authorizing the opening of the school at the beginning 
of the month of November of the same year, and further authorizing 
the Governor to appoint temporarily the professors so that classes 


356th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 123. 34Moreno: pp. 239-43. 


106 Education in Porto Rico 


might begin at once.* The establishment and opening of the In- 
stitute was received with a great deal of enthusiasm by all the people. 
Dr. Ferrer describes the enthusiasm that attended the foundation of 
such an institution in the following words: 

The sentiment with which the establishment of the institute was received in our 
country, always eager for progress and devoted to culture and enlightenment, was 
manifested by the general enthusiasm with which it was received, and still more by 
the large number of students who flocked to the capital from all parts of the island 
to take advantage of the opportunities that it offered for higher instruction than 
before was known. 

Courses of Study. Pupils entering the Institute had to be examined 
in the subjects of the elementary school as outlined in the Organic 
Decree of 1880.57. Thus the student was about ten years old when 
he entered the Institute. The regular course was four years.*® The 
following was the official course of study: Latin, Spanish, Rhetoric 
and Poetics; Geography; History of Spain; General History; Psy- 
chology; Logic and Ethics; Arithmetic and Algebra; Geometry and 
Trigonometry; Physics and Chemistry; Natural History and Agri- 
culture; French, English and German.**® A student finishing the 
official course of study received the degree of Bachelor of Arts and 
was ready to enter the university for professional study. 

During the years that the Institute functioned it developed a second 
curriculum which was added to it as other schools failed. By the 
year 1895 it was offering a special curriculum entitled “Estudios de 
Aplicacion,” that is, practical studies. ‘The following course of study 
was offered: Business Arithmetic and Bookkeeping; Commercial 
Geography and Statistics; Political Economy and Business Legis- 
lation, practical exercises on commercial transactions; Applied Chem- 
istry; Industrial Mechanics; Drawing.*® ‘This course was patronized 
by very few students as the learned professions were the most popular 
among the educated classes. In the year 1894-95, only thirteen stu- 
dents pursued this course of study.“ It was a four year course and 
graduates received diplomas in the following professions: Commercial 
Expert, Mechanical Expert and Chemical Expert.” 


% Proyecto del Reglamento del Instituto. Civil Provincial y Colegios Privados de Segunda 
Ensefianza de la Isla de Puerto Rico, p. 1. 

%56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 138. 37Proyecto: Art. 90, p. 22. 

38The curriculum was changed later toa five year course, since in 1898 the course 
comprised five years. See 56th Cong. S. D. 363, pp. 22, 23. 

39Instituto de Segunda Ensefianza de Puerto Rico, Memoria del curso de 1894-1895, 
p. 38. 

40Memoria, 1894-1895, p. 38. Jbid., pp. 36-37. 

“Proyecto, op. cit., Arts. 169-170, pp. 40-41. 


Secondary and Professional Education (1820-1898) 107 


Fees. Each student taking the entrance examinations paid an 
entrance fee of two and a half pesos. The total amount of fees was 
distributed in equal parts among the examiners.“ At the beginning 
of the year all the students paid a registration fee. At the end of 
the year each student paid a fee of two and a half pesos for each sub- 
ject he was examined in,* and on graduation all candidates for the 
B.A. degree paid twenty-five pesos for their diplomas and two and a 
half pesos for their expenses. Candidates for the technical diplomas 
paid thirty-seven and a half pesos for the diploma and two and a half 
pesos for their expenses. A small number of honored students were 
given free tuition.“ 

Teachers. The first teachers appointed were all Porto Ricans who 
served temporarily until the regular professors arrived from Spain, 
when all the faculty became entirely Spanish, with the exception of 
one member, who wasa Cuban. All the teachers had to be university 
graduates. The first director of the Institute was Don José Julian 
Acosta, who acted in that capacity until June 24, 1884, when he re- 
signed. This worthy Porto Rican, one of the best minds Porto Rico 
has ever produced, served later in the Institute as assistant professor 
of agriculture until his death, August 26, 1891.7 The salaries of the 
professors were 1500 pesos a year and those of the assistant professors 
750 pesos.*® 

Financial Support. The school was supported by the provincial 
government from the insular revenues until 1891 when the central 
government assumed the responsibility of its support. When the 
Island was given autonomous government in 1898, it was again sup- 
ported by the provincial government.*® 

Accredited Institutions. ‘The Constitution of the Institute provided 
for a credit system of private institutions of secondary education, 
several of which were allied to the official Institute. The Institute 
credited also work done at home under private tutors. The Director 
of the Institute was superintendent of all schools allied to the official 
school, and he appointed a board of examiners to go about to the 
different towns to examine pupils of private schools, or who studied 
at home. All rules and regulations regarding studies had to be com- 
plied with by all students, whether private or official. 

It is a known fact that the aim of the private schools or tutors was 


8Jbid., Arts. 90, p. 22. “Tbid., Arts. 99 to 101. 
“SJied., Arts: 112, p. 28. “Jiid., Arts. 173, p. 41. 
47Memoria, 1894-1895: p. 64. 48Proyecto, op. cit., Art. 25, p. 9. 


497bid., Arts. 58-59, p. 16; 56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 139. 


108 Education in Porto Rico 


not to educate, but to prepare their students to pass the official ex- 
aminations, making education mostly a matter of cramming. The 
directors of private schools exerted a great deal of influence over the 
institute professors in order that their pupils might pass the examina- 
tions. The professors were also bothered with all sorts of reeommen- 
dations from the parents of children who used their influential friends 
in order that their children might pass the tests. The institutions 
recognized by the official school were the following: The Free Insti- 
tution of Public Instruction, San Juan; Central College, Ponce; 
The College of the Paulist Fathers, Ponce; El Divino Maestro, 
Ponce; E] Divino Maestro, San German; Lyceum of Mayagiiez; 
Lyceum of Guayama; The Jesuit College, Santurce; San Juan Bau- 
tista, San Juan.5° At the beginning the Institute was very popular, 
but later the professors.were charged with political intrigue and schem- 
ing for personal profit. At the same time private schools and church 
schools were founded to prepare students for the official examinations. 
As a result the Institute maintained its own for the first ten years, 
but after that began to decline, while the enrollment of the private 
schools increased. 

Efforts to Establish Professional and Trade Schools. There were 
other efforts on the part of the Government and the municipality of 
San Juan which should be mentioned in thischapter. In 1883 there was 
established in San Juan a professional school for the preparation of 
surveyors, builders, commercial and industrial agents, and engineers. 
Few students patronized this schools and it had a very short life. 
The studies were incorporated into the technical courses of the Insti- 
tute.2 In 1886, the city of San Juan established a trade school, the 
object of which was to provide an opportunity for workmen and others 
to acquire a broader and more scientific knowledge of their particular 
arts and trades. The school was also closed for lack of popular in- 
terest and pupils to attend it.” 

In 1896 another school for the purpose of instructing workmen was 
established. The workmen were taught reading and writing, while 
popular lectures, mostly civic, were given for the benefit of all those 
who desired to attend. The lectures were given by prominent citi- 
zens, mostly of San Juan, on the following topics: History of Spain, 
Political Economy, Popular Law, Talks on the Works of Samuel 


‘°Memoria, 1894-1895. Op. cit., pp. 67-68. 56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 140. 
51Compare Appendix V. & 56th Cong. S. D. 3863, p. 143. 
83Jbid., p. 1389. 


Secondary and Professional Education (1820-1898) 109 


Smiles, Geography of Porto Rico, and Practical Ethics. Many 
workmen attended the lectures.*4 In 1896 the Provincial Deputation 
considered the establishment of a trade school in the orphan asylum. 
It ordered equipment from Europe and opened the school which 
functioned until the United States took possession.” 


D. CoNnpbITIONS OF SECONDARY AND PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 
IN 1898 


What the United States Found in 1898, and Reports. Having con- 
sidered the chief movements and institutions in secondary and pro- 
fessional education, it remains now to see what the United States 
found in secondary and professional education in 1898, when she took 
possession of the Island. Besides the normal schools the United 
States found the trade school and the Institute of Secondary Instruc- 
tion. The committee appointed to inspect these institutions was 
composed of the following men: Dr. Manuel F. Rossy, Major T. 
Van R. Hoff, Dr. Francisco del Valle Atiles, and Dr. George G. 
Groff, two of whom were Americans and two Porto Ricans. This 
committee called on expert aid when needed. The committee re- 
ported in part as follows: 

Location and Cost of Buildings. The institute at present has no building of its 
own. Some classes are held in the Weather Bureau Building, some in the Athen- 
eum, some over a drug store on the Plaza, and others in the houses of the pro- 
fessors . .  . The industrial school is in buildings forming a portion of the 
Asilo de Beneficencia. The cost of the buildings cannot be given and it is immaterial 
since, excepting those occupied by the industrial school, their use is only temporary. 

Industrial School. The industrial school is in the same building as the orphan 
school and insane asylum. It is supplied with appliances and machinery for instruc- 
tion in the trades. There are shops for instruction in typesetting, carpentry, 
mechanics, bookbinding, tailoring, chemical industries, shoemaking, masonry, 
model-making, sculpture, lithography, and the manufacture of tobacco. There 
was a branch of industrial training for women in another part of the city where 
nightly instruction was furnished in drawing. Boys were admitted to the industrial 
school after examination on the subjects of the elementary school instruction and 
could continue their studies, four, five or six years, according to the grade under- 
taken. The annual expenses are reported as $17,857. Total attendance for 1897 
and 1898 was 312. This useful institution was sometimes suspended for lack of 
funds. Tuition was free, and there was no matriculation or other fee, the cost being 
borne wholly by the colonial assembly, (provincial deputation).*” 

Methods of Instruction. In the institute the methods were investigated by 
Professor J. G. Meyers, a former instructor in the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- 


“Ibid., 143. SIbid., p. 140. 
6Ibid., p. 22. ‘]Ibid., pp. 24-25. 


110 Education in Porto Rico 


nology, and by Dr. Ward, of the New York Independent. Professor Meyers found 
the instruction to be by lectures, given to boys who could not enter any college 
in the United States. No text books were used. Each professor lectured one hour 
each day. The work seemed to be of an exceedingly elementary character, and the 
professors in their lectures rambled from subject to subject, showing no evidence of 
preparation. Mr. Ward testified that the instruction was as nearly worthless as 
possible. The professor of English was absent on each of the times that Professor 
Meyers visited his class. The summary of Professor Meyer’s report is herein 
given. . . The peculiar features of the Institute de segunda Ensefianza are: 

(1) Work is pretended to be done on the Spanish university plan; the boys are 
not taught but are lectured to. 

(2) Teachers do not work on the blackboard and do not correct the texts that are 
dictated by them; the texts dictated are mostly verbatim copies from Spanish 
books. 

(3) No text books are used; it is pretended that boys are requested to study refer- 
ence books; this pretension does not hold. One of the reasons given for the absence 
of text books is that the book stores do not keep them. It is evident that if text 
books are not kept, reference books will not be kept either. Another reason given is 
that, according to the principal, no text books are kept in the French schools, a 
statement which is generally accepted by the teachers as true. 

(4) Generally only one boy recites during one session. 

(5) All the boys are deficient in Spanish grammar and orthography. 

(6) No teacher, except Dr. Torriente, devotes more than one hour to his daily 
duties at the school. 

(7) The principal leaves the school after he has finished his lesson. 

(8) The janitor, his family and relations, are too prominent in the school. 

(9) The beginnings of the sessions is not indicated by a bell, and time is not kept 
by the teachers. 

(10) It is impossible to ascertain the exact number of boys who attend the school. 

(11) Classes are not graded, and work requiring three hours is done in one. 


Methods of Matriculation and Graduation. At each of the schools an entrance 
examination in the subjects taught in the elementary school is required. At the 
normal school the examination consisted in writing three lines from dictation and 
solving one problem in arithmetic. It is believed the examinatior in thé institute is 
not more severe. At the industrial school a physical examination and a certificate 
of good character is also required.*? 

Three, four or five years after matriculation the student is entitled to apply for 
final examination. If he passes this he receives a diploma or certificate, depending 
upon the school from which he graduates. In case he graduates from the institute 
his diploma entitles him to enter the Spanish universities. The peculiarities of this 
system are: (1) No regularity of attendance seems to be required. . . .(2) By 
payment of double fees no attendance at all was required at the school. (3) Other 
schools can be affiliated with the institute and normal school, and their pupils 
graduated with all the honors and privileges of the State schools by payment 


856th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 25. 
5°This was due to the fact that most of the pupils entering the technical school were 
from the poorer class, considered a lower social class. 


Secondary and Professional Education (1820-1898) 111 


of double the examination fees charged at the State school. (4) A matriculation fee 

is charged in each subject pursued and an examination fee in each branch.© 

Suppression of Schools by United States Government. Before the 
investigation of the committee, the industrial or trade school had 
already been suspended; upon the recommendation of the committee 
the Institute and the Normal Schools were then suspended in June, 
1899, at the close of the academic year.*! 

On July 28, 1899, by General Orders No. 108, the degree of bachelor 
was abolished and in lieu thereof a certificate was authorized to be 
issued by the insular board of education and signed by the president, 
stating the subjects completed by students upon whom the degree 
of bachelor was formerly conferred.” 

Summary. To summarize, it has been seen that there was no 
definite organization of secondary or professional education during the 
Spanish government before 1882 when the Institute was founded; 
that whatever existed of the two was the result of sporadic attempts 
here and there by the Church, private societies or clubs, municipalities, 
the government, and above all, by individuals of foresight and de- 
votion to the welfare of the people; that all these attempts showed lack 
of knowledge of conditions or needs and of foresight, and therefore 
a lack of a definite end or aim; that the intellectual progress was due 
to infiltration of ideas from the outside, through the press, through 
teachers that came to the Island, and above all, through the efforts 
of the boys who left their homes and their Island to be educated 
abroad, and on their return threw themselves into the struggle for 
political, social and intellectual progress in behalf of their people. 

If there were in Porto Rico during the Spanish government, pro- 
fessional men of worth, as there were; if there were men of letters, 
poets, orators, and editors, as there were; they were the results of the 
above influences more than the results of a well organized system 
of public instruction, whether primary or secondary. The existence 
of such men was not so much due to the system of public instruction, 
but to their natural intelligence and in spite of the available schools. 
However, Porto Rico was as well off as Spain educationally. The 
Institute was as good as the best in Spain and as good as could be 
expected in a Spanish colony. It was an institution that, judged 
with Spanish eyes and Spanish standards, was not bad, but, of course, 
when compared with American standards it fell short. But American 


656th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 26. lIbid., p. 22. 
®Ibid., p. 29. 


112 Education in Porto Rico 


methods, ideals and standards did not develop in Porto Rico until 
after the war, and in judging the educational institutions they must 
be judged by the prevailing standards. The cultural status of Porto 
Rico in 1898 compared favorably with that of Spain, which was all 
that could be expected of a Spanish colony, the population of which 
was three-fourths Spanish. 


PART II 


EDUCATION UNDER THE GOVERNMENT OF 
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 
(1898—1920) 


CHAPTER VII 


AMERICAN OCCUPATION AND THE BEGINNINGS OF 
SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 


A. Hustoricat BAcKGROUND SINCE 1898 


The United States Occupation of Porto Rico. The autonomous 
government granted Porto Rico, November 25, 1897, was of short 
duration, for, a few months after the elections, April 21, 1898, Govern- 
or-General Macias suspended the constitutional guarantees and de- 
clared the Island in a state of war, although war was not formally 
declared until the 25th. On May the 12th, the city of San Juan was 
bombarded by Admiral Sampson, a few buildings being damaged 
and probably a dozen casualties. On July 25th the American forces 
occupied Guadnica and three days later Ponce. After a few skir- 
mishes in the western part of the Island, southwest and near the 
Asomante on the military road, the protocol was signed providing 
for the cession of Porto Rico to the United States. On October 18, 
the last of the Spanish troops to sail embarked for Spain, the forces 
of the United States occupied San Juan and raised the flag on the 
Fortaleza, proclaiming United States sovereignty and the end of 
Spanish rule. 

Military Government. At the withdrawal of the Spanish troops, 
Major General John R. Brooke became Military Governor. On 
November 29 he abolished the Provincial Deputation and made other 
changes in the insular administration. On December 6 he was fol- 
lowed in office by Major General Guy V. Henry, who by executive 
order of February 6, 1899, dissolved the insular Cabinet of secretaries 
and constituted the departments of State, Justice, Finance and In- 
terior, each presided over by a chief. On May 9, 1899, he was suc- 
ceeded by General George W. Davis as Military Governor. On 


(113) 


114 Education in Porto Rico 


August 12 the Governor abolished the existing form of government 
and created a Bureau of Internal Revenue, a Bureau of Agriculture, 
a Bureau of Public Works, a Judicial Board, a Board of Charities, a 
Board of Health, a Board of Prison Control, a Board of Insular Police, 
and the office of Civil Secretary of the Military Governor. 

Civil Government. By act of April 19, 1900, which went into effect 
May the first, the United States Congress made provision for a Civil 
Government to consist of a Governor and an executive Council of 
eleven members to be appointed by the President for terms of four 
years, a House of Delegates of thirty-five members, and a Resident 
Commissioner in Washington to be elected by the qualified voters. 
The Executive Council was composed of the Insular Cabinet and five 
other persons of good repute. The Cabinet included a Secretary for 
Civil Affairs, an Attorney General, a Treasurer, an Auditor, a Com- 
missioner of the Interior and a Commissioner of Education. The 
Executive Council and the House of Delegates comprised the Legis- 
lative Assembly of Porto Rico. On May 1, 1900, this government 
was established by the inauguration of Governor Charles H. Allen. 
Such was in general outline the civil government of Porto Rico until 
the present government was established in 1917. 

Present Government. By the Organic Act of Congress of that year, 
known as the “Jones Act,’’ a change was made in the government 
of the Island. The main features of that Act are the granting of 
United States citizenship to all the people born in the Island, the 
separation of the legislative and executive functions and the extension 
of the appointive Upper House to an elective Senate. The govern- 
ment is representative. The franchise is restricted to citizens of the 
United States twenty-one years of age or over, who have been in 
residence one year, with such additional qualifications as may be 
prescribed by the Legislature of Porto Rico, but no property qualifica- 
tion may be imposed. 

The executive power resides in the Governor, appointed by the 
President. The legislative functions are vested in a legislature of 
two elective houses, the Senate composed of nineteen members (two 
from each of seven senatorial districts, and five senators at large) 
and the House of Representatives, composed of thirty-nine members 
(one from each of thirty-five representative districts, and four elected 
at large). The Island is represented in Congress by a Resident Com- 
missioner elected by the people for a term of four years. There are 
six departments with a chief at the head of each. 


American Occupation and School Organization 115 


Municipal Government. After the United States took possession, the 
municipal government continued substantially unchanged although 
reforms were introduced from time to time until the establishment ot 
the present commission form of government. The present municipal 
government went into effect October 9, 1919, and since then has been 
slightly changed as experience has shown the need. This abolished 
practically all the existing municipal institutions and substituted a 
new body called the Municipal Assembly, which is the chief center 
of all local government. This assembly is elected by the people. 
It is bi-partisan in character and somewhat larger in each munici- 
pality than the old municipal council. 

The actual administration is carried out by a commission of from 
three to five members, according to the size of the city, one of the 
members being the municipal commissioner of education. This com- 
mission is selected by the Assembly and responsible to it. The As- 
sembly also makes the budget, levies the special taxes and in general 
controls the local government. The law reapportioned the receipts 
from the general property tax, granting the municipalities a larger 
share, and abolished much of the supervision over municipal affairs 
hitherto exercised by the officials of the insular government. This 
municipal law is radical and original whev we consider how far local 
government is put in the hands of the people. At the same time it 
gives the municipalities an opportunity to develop a larger and more 
complete local life, and serves as a school for training in self-govern- 
ment. 


B. ScHoot ORGANIZATION UNDER THE MiuitaRy GOVERNMENT 


Porto Rican Leaders Voice Public Sentiment in Education. The 
public schools continued their work as they were organized, and al- 
though they were more or less disturbed, due to the change of gov- 
ernment and the resignation of Spanish teachers, yet normal con- 
ditions were re-established soon, and it was the desire of the new gov- 
ernment that they continue undisturbed as far as possible. Twelve 
days after the American flag had been raised at the Fortaleza, the 
first move toward a new policy of education was taken by a number 
of representative Porto Ricans, who in response to a public call met 
in Assembly at the theatre in San Juan, October 30, 1898, and adopted 
several resolutions, which manifested the great interest the leaders 
of Porto Rico had in education and stated their realization that the 
educational system needed to be improved. 


116 Education in Porto Rico 


Since this was the first public expression of the people on education 
under the American flag, it should be noted and preserved in the 
history of education of the Island. The following resolutions were 
adopted: 

As regards public education, the best means of advancing our people would be 
kindergartens and normal schools as established in the United States. Our ele- 
mentary and superior schools should be transformed and graded according to modern 
pedagogic methods. Secondary instruction should be a continuation of the primary 
and a preparation for the superior and collegiate. Universal education should be 
introduced on the best models of the United States. There shouldbe established 
schools for adults, Sunday schools, schools of arts and trades, libraries, museums, 
academies of fine arts and literary clubs. Education must be obligatory and gratui- 
tous and it must be compulsory on every municipality to sustain its own schools, 
the number being fixed by law with reference to the population. If the municipality 
be unable to sustain all the schools, the State should establish the necessary ones. 
Grades of instruction should be three—the fundamental or that given by the public 
schools; the secondary, which should give positive notions on scientific, civic and 
technical subjects; the professional, which comprehends the knowledge of juris- 
prudence, medicine, engineering, and technology, the universities to diffuse general 
knowledge of science for purpose of high culture. For the formation of a competent 
body of teachers, it is necessary to establish normal schools for teachers of both 
sexes, normal schools for professors, normal schools for university teachers, and 
military and naval schools.! 

Some of those leading citizens who helped draw these resolutions 
are still living to-day, and have seen their dream partly realized in 
twenty years of American occupation. The part that native in- 
terest and initiative has contributed to educational ambition and 
growth should not be forgotten. Although these resolutions had no 
legal sanction and were only a popular expression of the will of the 
people, they contributed greatly to hastening reforms in education. 
They also showed the American government what the will of the 
people was in matters of education, and that the citizens of the Island 
would support any improvements in education that the government 
of the United States might wish to introduce. 


First Official Educational Activities. The United States officials 
surveyed the situation and acted slowly as many matters had to be 
cared for. By general orders number 17, issued November 29, the 
Provincial Deputation was discontinued, and all matters relating to 
education which had been in charge of that body were transferred to 
the department of the interior, which was still to be created officially 
in February of the next year.2 By general orders number 18, issued 


156th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 20. 2Tbid. 


American Occupation and School Organization 117 


December 1, the royal sub-delegation of pharmacy was abolished, 
and the secondary institute was authorized to grant certificates to 
pharmacies. The archives of the sub-delegation were placed in 
charge of the Institute.’ 

First Official Utterance on Education. The first official utterance 
after the American occupation regarding public education was that 
of General Guy V. Henry. Addressing the council of secretaries, 
which was still in existence, he said: ‘“The system of school education 
should be looked into, and it is my desire to ascertain how many 
teachers they (the municipalities) can pay, who can teach the Ameri- 
can or English language, commencing with the younger children. 
It is believed that those who can speak English only can accomplish 
the purpose by object lessons. It is thought that American women 
for teaching can be obtained for fifty dollars a month in gold, and they 
are well worth it. The young children are anxious to learn and now 
is the time for them to do so. If Alcades can report to me how many 
teachers they can so employ, they will be brought from the United 
States and sent to these towns.’ 

Educational Conditions Investigated. But so far, no actual con- 
structive work had been undertaken by the military government to 
investigate and modify the then existing school system. The edu- 
cational survey to investigate educational conditions began in Janu- 
ary, 1899, under the leadership of Dr. John Eaton, formerly United 
States Commissioner of Education. He was invited to come to 
Porto Rico to reorganize the school system, assisted by Dr. Victor S. 
Clark. They found the schools in a rather chaotic condition, due to 
the general excitement of the war, the departure of teachers to Spain, 
and the fact that in the absence of a legal head of the educational 
system, every municipality and even every teacher acted independently 
and many disregarded the existing laws and regulations. They found 
it difficult to give an accurate report of actual conditions because there 
were no authentic data to be found. However, the investigation 
continued, and by the end of April, 1899, recommendations were 
made providing for necessary changes in the laws governing public 
education.® 

The School Laws of 1899. In the meantime the department of the 
interior was established and education made one of the bureaus of 
that department. Dr. John Eaton was made chief of the bureau of 


356th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 20 4 Ibid., p. 21. 
5Tbid. 


118 Education in Porto Rico 


education, in charge of all educational and charitable institutions, 
the basis for the school laws enacted by order of General Guy V. 
Henry, May 1,1899.° These laws, as compiled by Dr. Victor S. Clark, 
consist of two parts, the law of school districts, and laws concerning 
public instruction. Being the first school law of Porto Rico under 
the government of the United States, it is important to review its 
chief provisions. 

The law urged the district to organize and establish public schools, 
but did not compel them to do so, it being permissive and not manda- 
tory. The first part authorized the establishment of school districts 
and provided regulations for conducting the business of the same. 
Any barrio or town district was to have five trustees, that is, a school 
board of five members. In the town districts these officers were to 
be elected by twos and threes upon alternate years, and their terms 
were to be two years or until their successors were elected. In barrio 
districts the trustees were to be elected annually. ‘The law defined the 
duties of the officer and established provision for taxation and bonding 
of districts.’. By the end of the year only one district, that of Ma- 
meyes, in the municipality of Utuado, had been organized according 
to law.® 

Part II of the School Laws. ‘‘Laws Governing Public Instruction,” 
was put into operation July 1, 1899. The law defined a public school, 
the rights of pupils, and the school year and its divisions. It abolished 
the fee system, made the public schools entirely free to pupils of all 
classes and degrees, established a graded system of schools in towns, 
and prescribed a legal course of study. It determined the legal 
qualifications of teachers in the primary and secondary schools and 
the university of Porto Rico, and their salaries and payment of the 
same. It authorized the provision of free text books for the public 
schools. It defined the relation of the municipalities to the public 
schools and granted powers to municipal school trustees to appoimt 
teachers. It authorized the establishment of high schools, a normal 
school and the organization of professional schools of the University 
of Porto Rico. It provided rules and regulations governing the 
finances and accounts of the bureau of education.® 

The School Law not Adaptable. This law met with a great deal of 
opposition due to the fact that it was not adapted to existing con- 


656th Cong. S. D. 363, 
7Clark, Victor S., The School pe of the Island of Porto Rico, May 1, 1899, pp. 1-10. 
856th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 26. °Clark, Victor, op. cit., pp. 10-47, 


American Occupation and School Organization 119 


ditions. It must be admitted that the laws were too democratic to 
be carried out properly, for the political and social conditions re- 
quired a more centralized system of education than, this law provided. 
However, the law remained in force until the first year of the establish- . 
ment of the civil government and in the meantime it was modified 
as subsequent experience showed the need. On May 9, 1899, when 
Brigadier General George V. Davis became military governor, he 
app ointed a committee of Porto Rican teachers selected from different 
parts of the Island, who were to act in conjunction with the director 
of public instruction to review the laws and make desirable recom- 
mendations. !° 

The committee met and reported and their reeommendations were 
in the main followed by the educational authorities, but no special 
orders were issued to that effect. Some of the recommendations 
were disregarded as impracticable, such as the one that public school 
salaries be increased, and that one-half of the salaries be paid during 
vacations." 

Need for Centralization in Administration: Board of Public Instruc- 
tion. Sofarthe government of the United States had had possession 
of the Island for about a year. A general survey of educational con- 
ditions had been made. Education was administered through a bu- 
reau of education under the department of the interior and under the 
leadership of the Director of Education. Dr. Eaton had resigned 
and returned to the United States in the latter part of May. The new 
school law was to go into effect July 1. On July 8 an Insular Board 
of Education was established. On August 12 the bureau of education 
was discontinued, and the Insular Board of Public Instruction took 
its place; the president of the Board was really the director of educa- 
tion who had to report directly to the Governor." 

Thus the process of centralization in the administration of educa- 
tion had begun, and it had to continue, due to the failure of the local 
boards to perform their duties and to the influence of politics on the 
local boards. On October 12, it was ordered that no more than three 
of the five school trustees should belong to one political party. This 
was due to the fact that many towns were completely under the ad- 
"The following members composed the committee,—José Becerra Zayas and José 
Infante Saavedra of San Juan; Eladio J. Vega of Ponce, and Manuel Maria Arroyo, of 
Mayagtez. 

156th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 28. 

The following were the members of the insular Board of Education: Dr. Victor S. 


Clark, Pres. George G. Groff, Henry Huyke, José E. Saldafia, and R. H. Todd. 
356th Cong. 8. D. 363, p. 29. 


120 Education in Porto Rico 


ministration of one political party, there being often less than one 
hundred of the opposing party, so the party in power controlled the 
schools. The local boards had the power to appoint teachers but 
they neglected to do so, so on October 19th it was ordered that the 
president of the Insular Board of Education could appoint teachers 
for the public schools, whenever or wherever the municipalities failed 
to do so within five days after being notified by the President of 
the Insular Board that such appointments had to be made.“ 

A New Board of Education and Further Centralization. Due to the 
fact that administration of public instruction was being more and more 
centralized, not by law but by failure on the part of the municipalities 
to do their duties, and also in order to have a more representative 
body in charge of education, a new Board of Education was ap- 
pointed on January 7, 1900. The Island was divided into six school 
districts and representatives were appointed from each district. 
District I, San Juan, was represented by Victor 8S. Clark, President; 
George B. Groff, José A. Saldafia, and R. H. Todd; District II, 
Fajardo, was represented by George Bird y Arias; District III, 
Arroyo, by Henry Huyke; District IV, Ponce, by Rosendo Matienzo 
Cintrén; District V, Mayagtiez, by Bartolomé Esteva; and District 
VI, Arecibo, by J. Ruiz de Sagredo."® 

Further needs of centralization and also the natural process of its 
evolution can be seen by observing more failures on the part of the 
local boards and increased assumption of duties by the Insular Board 
of Education. By the same order of January 7 it was ordered that 
where municipalities had failed to provide proper quarters for schools, 
but had contracted with teachers for the same, the salaries of these 
teachers had to be paid by the municipal authorities and not by the 
insular government; that municipalities should elect teachers im- 
mediately where they had not done so; that municipalities should 
open sufficient schools to accommodate all the children in their juris- 
diction, and to support the same until the insular government was in 
a position to make special provision for such institutions; that the 
President of the Insular Board, through the English supervisors, 
should rent rooms for public schools wherever the municipalities had 
failed to do so of their own accord. 

The Need of a Very Centralized Department of Education. It was 
evident that the local school officers were not prepared to carry on 


456th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 29. 1Ibid., p. 30. 
6 Ibid. 


American Occupation and School Organization 121 


the administration of the schools. They had every opportunity to 
show their ability, but they failed to perform their duties, which was 
the most obvious way to show their lack of ability or desire to run 
the local schools. It was also evident that the Organic Law of the 
school districts was premature and that it was issued without knowl- 
edge of the people’s ability for self-government. The local boards 
were complete failures; they could not administer the schools efficient- 
ly, showing that centralization in school administration and a great 
deal of it, was absolutely necessary for the success of public instruc- 
tion. 

The Insular Board of Education as well as the military officials 
realized that with the change from a military to a civil form of govern- 
ment, a great deal of attention had to be given to education, and 
specially to the administration of education, and that in order to 
have a working system of public schools, there was need of a special 
department of education. When the Organic Act establishing a civil 
government in Porto Rico went into effect, on May 1, 1900, it pro- 
vided for six executive departments, and one of these was the depart- 
ment of education with a commissioner at its head. 

Difficulties Revealed. The nineteen months of military government 
preceding the establishment of civil government was a period of re- 
adjustment, of becoming acquainted, with a great desire on the part 
of the people of the Island to know and understand their new rulers, 
and as great a desire on the part of Americans to be understood. But 
the two civilizations, being so different and coming together so sud- 
denly, it is not surprising that there were many misunderstandings on 
both sides. The aim of the American educators should have been to 
establish an American system of public schools, based on the demands 
of local psychology, adapted to local needs, a system of public schools 
embracing American ideals of education and yet adapted to a Latin 
American civilization, and capable of being put into operation in such 
a civilization. But on the contrary the people of the United States, 
having had no experience in colonial educational problems, trans- 
planted the American school system to Porto Rico irrespective of 
conditions different from those of the United States. 

The First American Schools atWork. Inthe meantime the emphasis 
in the schools was placed on the study of English and on patriotic 
exercises. The great desire of all was to learn English. Everyone 
who knew a little English became a teacher of the language and gave 
private lessons, and was very much in demand as interpreter. The 


122 Education in Porto Rico 


first utterance of an American official on education was in reference 
to teachers, ‘““who can teach the American or English language, com- 
mencing with the young children.”’ Next to English, patriotic ex- 
ercises received the attention of the American educators. The 
children of Porto Rico are musical. As soon as the Americaa songs 
were sung in the schools they became popular with the children and 
could be heard in the streets, in the country, and even in the tobacco 
factories. Translations into Spanish were made, and it was amusing 
to hear Porto Rican children singing ‘““My country, ’tis of thee” and 
“My native country, thee.” 

Another favorite exercise was the salute to the flag every morning 
on entering school, when all the children would salute the flag and 
swear allegiance to the great Republic which it represented. Latin 
people are inherently patriotic. They love the very soil, the earth 
of the country they are born in, so these songs and exercises took a 
passionate hold of the children. Their love of “‘Patria’’ took posses- 
sion of them and they expressed staunch allegiance to the United 
States. 

Dr. M. G. Brumbaugh, the first Commissioner of Education, has 
a great deal to say regarding patriotic exercises. “In almost every 
every city of the island,” he says, “‘and at many rural schools, the chil- 
dren meet and salute the flag as it is flung to the breeze. The raising 
of the flag is the signal that the school has commenced and the flag 
floats during the entire session. The pupils then sing America, Hail 
Columbia, Star Spangled Banner, and other patriotic songs. The 
marvel is that they sing these in English. The first English many 
of them know is the English of our national songs. The influence is 
far reaching. In many schools the children also sing Borinquen, 
then ‘canto provincial’ of the island. . . . Washington’s Birthday 
exercises were proposed and outlined by this department in a circular 
letter to the supervisors .. . The exercises were a fitting occasion to 
display their patriotism and their school training. In each case the 
exercises consisted of patriotic songs and speeches on Washington 
and on patriotism by the people . . . At least 25,000 children 
participated in these exercises and perhaps 5000 citizens joined in the 
patriotic demonstration. These exercises have done much to Ameri- 
canize the island, much more than any other single agency. The 
young minds are being molded to follow the example of Washiugton. 
Is is one of the gratifying results so far achieved in our work.” 

In 1900 the average Porto Rican child knew more about Washing- 


American Occupation and School Organization 123 


ton, Lincoln and Betsy Ross and the American flag than the average 
child in the United States.!” 

School Statistics in 1900. At the end of the first term of the scho- 
lastic year, 1899-1900, just before the establishment of civil gov- 
ernment, there were enrolled in the municipal schools of the Island, 
24,392 pupils, of whom 15,440 were boys and 8,952 girls. The 
average daily attendance was 20,103, or 82% of the total. This large 
per cent was due to the fact that in many of the schools there was a 
waiting list, and the child failing to attend lost his seat. 5,175 pupils 
applied for admission to the schools and were refused for want of 
accommodations. About 3,000 children were receiving all their in- 
struction under American teachers and about one-third of the total 
number enrolled received English instruction from the English speak- 
ing teachers. Over 15,000 children were just entering the schools 
and did not know how to read or write, while 96% of the total en- 
rollment was in the lowest three grades. Nine hundred and eighty- 
four were doing what was called advanced work, that is, they were 
capable of performing easy problems in long division, and some were 
studying fractions and decimals in arithmetic. Two hundred and 
eighty-seven rural and two hundred and ninety-five town teachers 
were employed. Of the 620 schools provided for in the insular 
budget, 38 were closed for failure of the municipalities to provide 
proper buildings or to select teachers. There were nine rural schools 
reported with an enrollment of less than 20 pupils, while 309 reported 
the full enrollment of 50. The average age of the pupils enrolled 
was nine years.!® 
" WReport of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico to the Secretary of the Interior, 


EaAtS. 4. 1901, p. 72. 
1856th Cong. 8. D. 363, p. 39. 


CHAPTER VIII 
SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION * 


The administration of the public school system of Porto Rico is 
very highly centralized, with the central offices located in San Juan. 
Each municipality has its local school offices. The Island contains 
at present seventy-six units of political organization known as “‘munic- 
ipalities.”” The school district is coterminous with the municipality 
and the local school officers have jurisdiction over all schools within 
their respective districts. As a connecting link between the central 
and the local offices there is a supervisor of schools who represents 
the Department of Education in the municipality, and vice versa. 
For the purpose of this chapter the subject will be treated under three 
divisions, namely, the Central Offices, Supervision, and the Local 


Offices. 
A. Tuer CENTRAL OFFICES 


Organization of the Department of Education. ‘The process of cen- 
tralization in school administration was a natural one. It grew out 
of conditions that had to be met. The second President of the In- 
sular Board of Education, Dr. George G. Groff, became acting com- 
missioner of education, May 1, 1900,! and remained in that position 
until Dr. M. G. Brumbaugh, appointed commissioner of education 
by President McKinley, took charge of the office, August 6, 1900. 
The Commissioner organized the department of education with the 
following staff: ‘The Commissioner and Assistant Commissioner, a 
disbursing officer, a secretary, two stenographers, a book-keeper, a 
shipping clerk, a messenger, and a janitor.2, The department moved 
September 1, 1900, into a few rooms in the Intendencia building on 
Plaza Alfonso XII, from the three small rooms it occupied in the 
upper story of the executive mansion.’ 
~ *See Appendix VI for a diagram of administration. 

1The Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1900, p. 9. 


2Ibid., 1900, p.10. 
3Ibid., 1901, p. 8. 


(124) 


School Administration and Supervision 125 


The Need of a New School Law. Although the new department 
had been organized and had begun work, yet the laws governing 
education had not been revised, nor repealed, so there was now 
a department of education under a civil government, governed 
by military orders. It was hard for the department to do its work 
under these orders for many reasons. According to Dr. Groff, the 
laws had been written in part by Dr. Eaton, who was in the Island 
three months, and who made but one trip outside of the capital.* 
Dr. Eaton did not know Porto Rico, its people and its needs. He 
simply tried to adapt the school system of Massachusetts, based on 
clear and democratic principles, to a Latin American civilization, 
when the people were not ready to conduct their own affairs in matters 
of education. 

Dr. Brumbaugh summarizes the working of the military orders in 
the following words: 


The law authorizes the granting of licenses to teach to all teachers for five years. 
It does not require an examination of applicants, provided they hold a Spanish or a 
Porto Rican title. It gives the power to employ teachers, wholly to local boards. . 
Licenses were issued in great numbers, vastly more than there were schools upon the 
Island. The power to control the teaching force is thus taken bodily from the de- 
partment and placed with the local boards. This is fatal to the advancement of the 
schools. It is impossible to supervise education as required by the act of Congress, 
providing a civil government for Porto Rico, so long as the commissioner is absolutely 
helpless in the control of teachers. There should be a change here that would make 
it impossible for incompetent teachers to hold a license, and that will protect good 
teachers from the competitions and machinations of worthless teachers and from the 
pernicious interference of politicians. The department does not covet power, but 
it is willing to assume power when by doing so it can give security to worthy teachers 
and the best instruction to the pupils. 

Local boards of education are constituted by the same law. These are required to 
pay rent for teachers’ homes, select, rent and equip buildings for school purposes, 
and elect teachers for the schools. They have the power to assess or collect any 
money. They are entirely at the mercy of the aleade of any Ayuntamiento of the 
several municipalities. These municipalities are frequently in debt and make no 
appropriation to the local boards. Thus they are by law compelled to make con- 

. tracts which by law they are helpless to honor. Many of these boards are composed 
of good men, anxious to promote education, and to cooperate with the department, 
but they frankly confess their inability to do as they would like, because they have 
neither power nor resources to do so.5 


Provision of the Organic Act Regarding the Commissioner of Edu- 
cation. Although the Commissioner of Education is appointed by 
the President of the United States, for a term of four years, or at 


4Ibid., 1900, p. 10. 
‘Thid. 


126 Education in Porto Rico 


the pleasure of the President, to be legally the chief of the department 
of education, yet most of his powers proceed from the Insular Legis- 
lature. The Organic Act for Porto Rico, passed by the Congress of 
the United States, April 12, 1900, and which became effective in 
Porto Rico May 1, has the following provision regarding the Com- 
missioner of Education: 

That the commissioner of education shall superintend public instruction through- 
out Porto Rico and all disbursements on account thereof must be approved by him, 
and he shall perform such other duties as may be prescribed by law, and make such 
reports through the governor as may be required by the Commissioner of Education 
of the United States, which shall annually be transmitted to Congress.® 

Federal legislation for Porto Rico requires certain duties of the 
Commissioner as an appointee of the federal government, but the 
Insular Legislature prescribes his duties in detail as the administrator 
of the insular school system and as an officer paid by the insular 
government. ; 

The School Law of 1901. Until 1916, the Commissioner of Educa- 
tion was a member of the upper house of the legislature of Porto 
Rico, the Executive Council. This being so, it was practically easy 
to legislate for schools, more so when the Assembly or lower house, 
composed of Porto Ricans, were all in favor of the extension and im- 
provement of the system of public instruction. Dr. Brumbaugh 
himself prepared the school law known as “An Act to Establish a 
System of Public Schools in Porto Rico.”’ This law was presented to 
both houses and approved January 31, 1901, to go into operation on 
and after March 25, 1901. It centralized the administration of the 
schools, giving much more power and responsibility to the Commis- 
sioner of Education. 

Purpose of the School System. Section I of this law provides: 


That there shall be established and maintained a system of free public schools in 
Porto Rico, under the direction and supervision of the commissioner of education, 
for the purpose of providing a liberal education for the children of school age in 
Porto Rico, for the establishment of higher institutions of learning, including colleges, 
universities, normal, industrial, mechanical, agricultural and high schools, together 
with such other educational agencies as the commissioner of education may from 
time to time establish and direct.? 


Duties of the Commissioner. And section 23 of the same law sets 
forth the duties and powers of the Commissioner in the following 
paragraph: 


SOrganic Act for Porto Rico, April 12, 1900. 
"Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, April 9, 1901, p. 164. School 
Laws of Porto Rico. 


School Administration and Supervision 137 


The commissioner of education, being required by act of Congress of April 12, 
1900, to supervise education in Porto Rico, he shall, to comply with said act, appoint 
from time to time supervisors, or superintendents of schools, who shall be subject 
to the commissioner in all respects; he shall prepare and promulgate all courses of 
study, conduct all examinations; prepare and issue all licenses or certificates to 
teachers; select and purchase all school books, supplies and equipments necessary 
for the proper conduct of education; approve of all plans for public school buildings 
to be erected in Porto Rico; require and collect such statistics and reports from all 
school boards, supervisors or superintendents and teachers as he may require; and 
formulate such rules and regulations as he may from time to time find necessary for 
the effective administration of his office.’ 

Further Centralization. In contrast with the military orders, where 
administration of schools was in the hands of local boards, there is 
now a high degree of centralization. This had to come, first, because 
the local boards were a failure, and second, in order to comply with 
the Organic Act of April 12, 1900, which in itself gave the Commis- 
sioner ample powers and wide responsibilities. From time to time 
the legislature of Porto Rico has legislated with respect to the duties 
and powers of the Commissioner of Education, and the tendency has 
generally been to extend more and more his powers and duties, to 
centralize the system more and more. 

In 1915 the duties and powers of the Commissioner were sum- 
marized in the following words.: 

The commissioner, appointed for a term of four years, or at the pleasure of the 
President of the United States, with full powers of appointment over all subordinates, 
except certain classes of teachers, is empowered to determine the course of study, 
the length of the school year with limitations prescribed by law, and the length of the 
school day. He is in charge of the examination and certification of teachers, and no 
expenditure of public moneys for school purposes on the part of either the school 
boards or any of his subordinates in the department can be made without his ap- 
proval. He is a member of the executive council, ex-officio president of the board of 
trustees of the University of Porto Rico, and of the insular library.? 
Additional Duties of the Commissioner. Still other responsibilities 

have been added to the official duties of the Commissioner, not direct- 
ly connected with the work of the department of education, to the 
extent that a considerable part of the time, which should be devoted 
primarily to education, is taken up in other duties. 

Dr. Paul G. Miller, the last Commissioner of Education, speaks of 
such a state of affairs in the following terms: 


In addition to his regular duties as commissiorer of education, the present in- 
cumbent has served in the following capacities: Member of the Executive Council, 


8[bid., School Laws of Porto Rico. p. 168. 
%Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1915, p. 314. 


128 Education in Porto Rico 


Member of the Public Service Commission, President of the Board of Trustees of the 
University of Porto Rico, Chancellor of the University of Porto Rico, President of 
the Board of Trustees of the Carnegie Library, President of the Teachers’ Pension 
Board, and Chairman of the Chapter School Committee of the Porto Rico Chapter 
of the American National Red Cross. Through recent legislative action he has been 
made a member of a scholarship committee and of a committee to investigate and 
pass on pension claims of certain teachers. The public service commission has 
frequently held three meetings a week., With these multifarious demands upon the 
commissioner’s time, it has not always been possible to give the closest attention to 
the work for which he was primarily appointed.!° 

From the above is seen the unusually high degree of centralization 
of the department of education, the unusual number of powers, 
duties and responsibilities of the Commissioner, and the tremendous 
amount of influence which he is in a position to exercise in the general 
government of the Island. The new Organic Act has relieved him 
of his legislative duties, but there is still a danger of his accepting 
other duties alien to the work of the department, and thereby causing 
a detriment to education. The Commissioner of Education in Porto 
Rico is then the pivot man around whom the whole insular system of 
education revolves. 

Present-Day Organization of Central Offices. In comparison with 
the organization of the department in 1900 by Dr. Brumbaugh, it is 
well to notice the organization today. With the gradual extension 
of the school system the personnel of the department has increased 
so that today it is composed of the following: the Commissioner, the 
Assistant Commissioner, the division of property and accounts, the 
bureau of municipal school affairs,* and the division of supervision 
and records. Each division has a chief appointed directly by the 
Commissioner and responsible to him. The field staff is composed of 
three general superintendents, one of whom is general superintendent 
of Spanish; three general supervisors, manual arts, agriculture and 
home economics; and forty-one district supervisors, one over each 
school district. | 

The Assistant Commissioner. The Assistant Commissioner of Edu- 
cation is chosen and appointed by the commissioner at his pleasure, 
and, until recently, he was the head of the division of supervision. 
Due to the many duties of the Commissioner, he relieves him of much 
detail work. In the absence of the Commissioner from the Island he 
assumes all the responsibilities of the office of commissioner, except 


10Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 532. 
*Until 1919, the division of school board accounts. 
Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, pp. 534 and 588. 


School Administration and Supervision 129 


President of the Board of Trustees of the University, and Chancellor 
of the same. When the Commissioner had legislative duties, the 
Assistant Commissioner did not assume these in the absence of the 
Commissioner.” 

Division of Property and Accounts. The division of property and 
accounts handles all matters in connection with the purchase, dis- 
tribution and custody of books, supplies, and all office and school 
property bought and furnished by the department. It prepares and 
certifies the pay rolls of teachers and employees paid by the depart- 
ment, and keeps a record of their absence. It also keeps service 
records. 

The Bureau of Municipal Affairs. The bureau of municipal 
affairs handles all the work in connection with the approval of muni- 
cipal budgets and examination and auditing of all municipal school 
accounts. It prepares all data relative to the financial standing of 
the municipalities; it is required to pass upon the advisability of 
granting them authority to contract indebtedness, borrows money or 
issues bonds; it handles all the detail arising from the selection and 
purchase of sites by municipalities, and for the construction and 
repair of buildings. The work of the chief of the bureau can only 
be appreciated when a study is made of the increase in the municipal 
support of the school system since 1898. 

Division of Supervision and Records. The division of supervisio 
and records is headed by the secretary of the Department. This 
division handles all details which arise from the examination and 
certification of teachers, keeps all documents and official records, files 
all official correspondence, prepares all statistics in connection 
with the work of the school system, and aids the Commissioner in all 
matters which do not fall in the jurisdiction of any of the other 
divisions. 

Summary of Organization. 'The organization, administration and 
work of the department of education of Porto Rico is seen then to be 
characterized by a high degree of centralization. The public school 
system of Porto Rico is headed by the Commissioner of Education 
who is appointed by the President of the United States for a term of 
four years, or at his pleasure, with full power of appointment over 
all subordinates, except certain classes of teachers. He is responsible 
to the Governor in that he reports to the War Department at Wash- 
ington through him. 


2Ibid., 1915, p. 315. 


130 Education in Porto Rico 


The insular legislation enacts laws for the Commissioner to execute, 
so he is responsible to the legislature but his tenure of office does not 
depend on that body. By law he is president of the board of trustees 
of the University of Porto Rico, chancellor of the University, in 
which he has a large influence in the selection of the university 
faculties, and in its government and policy. He appoints all his 
subordinates: that is, the Assistant Commissioner, the general super- 
intendents, the district supervisors, the general supervisors of home 
economics, manual arts and agriculture, and the heads of the divisions. 
He also appoints directly teachers of English and other special 
teachers, and he must approve the nominations made by the local 
officers, so that the nominations of teachers must be approved by 
him to make their appointments complete. All expenditures for 
educational purposes, whether for insular, municipal or university 
funds, are subject to his approval. 

The Commissionership a Political Office. Such a centralization in 
the hands of one man has its advantages and its disadvantages. The 
Commissioner is a political appointee. In order to keep the schools 
of Porto Rico out of insular politics, the Commissioner of Education 
with his wide powers, has been an appointee of the President. There 
is no doubt that if he were to be selected as the other heads of de- 
partments are, he would be a member of the party in power. Whether 
the Governor and the legislature would select the best man for the 
place irrespective of political affiliations, or whether they would 
select a politician, is not to be considered here. However, since it 
is almost certain that if the Commissioner were to be selected by the 
insular authorities politics would enter into his appointment more 
than if he were a presidential appointee; and since the head of an 
educational system should be chosen not because of his political 
affiliations or even of citizenship, but because of personal fitness and 
preparation to perform the duties which such an office would devolve 
upon him, it is better that for the present the Commissioner of Edu- 
cation should be appointed by the President. 

Frequent Changes of Commissioners. It may not be hard to prove 
that federal politics have entered in the appointments of commis- 
sioners of education in Porto Rico, for changes of administration in 
Washington and changes in federal appointees in Porto Rico have 
correlated highly. However, the changes in Washington do not come 
often enough to make frequent changes in the Commissioner of 
Education. The changes in the office of the commissioner have been 


School Administration and Supervision 131 


due more to the fact that all of them, with the exception of the present 
one, were Americans from the Continent who did not care to remain 
in the Island for a long term, so that in the last twenty-one years 
there have been six commissioners of education, or an average of a 
three and a half year term for each. 

As each commissioner has had different policies from the preceding 
one, the department changes its policies with the change in commis- 
sioner and oftentimes a man has not been in office long enough to 
study the Island, know its needs, understand the people, and get 
his policies working, when he left. The work of the department 
would be more efficient if the commissioner could carry out his pro- 
gramme through a term of at least eight years. However, these 
changes have their advantages in that they keep new blood entering 
the school system. Anyone of the North who has worked in the 
tropics knows that due to isolation and climate it is easy to get stale, 
to stagnate educationally. The frequent changes, with all their dis- 
advantages, bring in new blood, new aims, new methods, and stimula- 
tion to professional growth. 

The Commissioner Must Play a Political Game. As already stated, 
the insular legislature must pass the laws which the Commissioner 
executes and must appropriate all insular funds for the school system. 
The Commissioner then is responsible to the people through their 
legislature, and at the same time must keep on good terms with that 
body, so as to have his measures and recommendations passed upon. 
If he is not in accord with the legislature, that body can hinder his 
work by failing to appropriate the necessary funds. To a certain 
extent, however, he must play a political game in order to have the 
school system run smoothly. Happily no body of citizens in Porto 
Rico has realized the need of public education more than the legis- 
lature, with the result that the Commissioner has generally had the 
support of the legislature in his effort to conduct the department 
efficiently. Such being the case, the legislature serves as a check on 
the Commissioner, even though it has no voice in his selection. 

Thus far the presidents of the United States have been wise in the 
selection of commissioners of education. No one would challenge 
the statement that all the commissioners of education to Porto Rico 
have been men of ability and professional training. They have per- 
formed their task to the best of their abilities with the help of their 
subordinates, many of whom have been, and are, Porto Ricans. They 
have not been infallible, but that is to be expected of every human 


182 Education in Porto Rico 


being. Due to the extreme centralization of the department of 
education, it is most important that the Commissioner be a man of 
integrity and well qualified for his office, for round him revolves the 
whole educational machinery, and a poor and inefficient Commis- 
sioner means a poor and inefficient system of schools. 


B. SUPERVISION 


The First Supervisors. ‘The first supervisors under the govern- 
ment of the United States were appointed as a result of a general 
need for English teachers. It will be remembered from Chapter 
VII that General Guy V. Henry, on December 7, 1898, expressed his 
desire to secure teachers “who can teach the American or English 
language.” There were no English teachers to employ and none 
were employed until March 23, 1899, when by order of the military 
governor sixteen English supervisors were appointed for the whole 
Island, their duties combining those of itinerant English teachers and 
inspectors of schools. They rendered frequent reports to the Bureau 
of Education, held teachers’ meetings and acted as instructors of 
English to both teachers and pupils. According to Dr. Clark the 
department of supervision, because of the nature of the work, became 
a most important agency in the development of the school system." 


Academic Qualifications of First Supervisors. The first supervisors 
were chosen from American and English nationals residing in the 
Island at the time and who were willing to work at a small salary.“ 
They were paid fifty dollars a month, American currency. According 
to Dr. Groff, these men were “‘ex-soldiers, ex-teamsters, ex-packers, 
and other such men very largely,’ yet their academic preparation 
shows that the most of them were academically qualified, if not pro- 
fessionally. Dr. Victor S. Clark says that ten held degrees from 
colleges or universities in the United States or England, or had com- 
pleted special courses in such institutions, three were graduates of 
city high schools, and one of these had taken some work in a profes- 
sional school, and one reported only a common school education and 
experience as a teacher in the public schools of Ohio." 

Americans vs. Porto Ricans for Supervisors. Although many Porto 
Rican teachers were as well qualified academically and knew the 
Janguage and the people, yet these positions were given to foreigners 


356th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 27. M4Jbid., 


15 Report of the Commissioner of Education for Pons! Riv. 1900, p. 11. 
 1656th Cong. $.D. 363, p. 34. 


School Administration and Supervision 133 


who could not communicate with the teachers. It is well to note 
the reasons given by Dr. Clark in support of the argument that it 
was desirable supervisors should be foreign born. He says, “These 
men must be for some time to come Americans. Native inspectors 
suffer many disadvantages; they are not accustomed to the standards 
of the States and therefore not disposed to require such standards 
in the schools here. They do not command the same respect from 
the teachers that well qualified men from other countries would 
command at the present time. Finally many of the most trying and 
delicate duties of the supervisors are connected with local difficulties 
arising through partisan political jealousies and animosities. While 
it may not be impossible to secure impartial action in such cases from 
native supervisors, it would be impossible to prevent charges of 
partiality, and the belief on the part of many teachers and patrons 
of the schools that injustice was being done, would weaken the author- 
ity of our representatives.” 

This is true and its being so is much more interesting when the 
change in the last twenty years is noted, and the fact that to-day 31 
out of 41 district supervisors are native born, while all the assistants 
are also native born, showing the advancement made in the prepara- 
tion of men to occupy positions of responsibility in the school system.'® 

Duties of First Supervisors. 'The duties of the first supervisors 
were as follows: “‘(1.) To hold teachers’ meetings for instruction in 
English and methods. (2.) To render a monthly report upon all the 
schools of their district, including special reports upon enrollment, 
methods, conditions of school buildings and surroundings, the pro- 
gramme followed in the schools and the progress made in individual 
subjects. (3.) To pay the teachers their monthly salary checks. 
(4) To distribute and keep account of all text-books and government 
supplies for the district. (5.) To preside at the quarterly examina- 
tions given by the insular board of education for teachers and for 
students desiring to enter secondary schools. (6.) The supervisors 
acted as direct representatives of the insular board in securing school 
buildings, in seeing that the school laws were enforced, that buildings 
complied with the requirements of the laws, in stimulating local action 
in the way of securing school supplies, and in investigating the mul- 


156th Cong. S. D. p. 34. 
18Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 583. 


134 Education in Porto Rico 


titude of petitions and complaints pertaining to the schools of the 
different municipalities.’’!° 

Difficulties of First Supervisors. In the exercise of their duties, the 
supervisors met with a great deal of opposition and difficulties, due 
to the nature of their work, to the friction of races and to the lack 
of a common language to communicate with the teachers. The 
teachers looked upon supervision as detective work from the officials 
of a government that had come as conqueror. The supervisors knew 
no Spanish to explain their positions and their motives, the teachers 
knew no English to communicate with them. Some time the super- 
visors knew enough Spanish to use the wrong phrase at the wrong 
time. 

The teachers were not accustomed to close supervision. Asa general 
rule they did as they pleased in the conduct of their school work, 
they smoked in the classroom and often neglected their duties. 
Somietimes failure to do better led to dismissal of a teacher. That 
teacher was a well known citizen of the community, had lived and 
taught there for several years and was looked upon with respect by 
the community. Dismissal then meant intrusion on the part of a 
foreigner. Local petitions would be sent to the authorities asking 
that the teacher be reinstated; and thus grew the animosity between 
the supervisor on one hand and the teacher and the municipality on 
the other, a state of affairs which made the task of the supervisor a 
difficult one. Yeta great deal of good was derived from such super- 
vision. ‘Through these officials local conditions were investigated, 
the educational sentiment of the various districts was found out and 
plans were formulated to select a more efficient corps of assistants 
and to apply better methods of supervision. 

The Supervisory Staff Enlarged. With the beginning of the civil 
government and the establishment of education with an educational 
expert as chief, supervision of schools was one of the first matters 
to receive the sttention of the Commissioner. Dr. Groff, on retiring 
as acting commissioner, recommended that the force of supervisors 
be reduced more and more. “The law,” said he, “‘fixes the number at 
sixteen. I would have, if I had remained in the office, reduced the 
number to ten the present year. After that we might reduce the | 
number to five or seven.’’?° 

Dr. Brumbaugh, on the contrary, instead of reducing the number, 


1956th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 34. 
20Report of the Commissioner of Education to Porto Rico, 1900, p. 11. 


School Administration and Supervision 135 


reorganized the force, secured sixteen supervisors allowed by the law 
and placed them with increased power and dignity at the front of 
education in their respective districts. They were given clearly de- 
fined territory to supervise and their salaries were increased to $87 
per month. The Commissioner kept in very close contact with the 
supervisors through correspondence, secured from most of the munic- 
ipalities provision in their budgets for the house and office rent of 
supervisors; and from the legislature recognition of these supervisors 
as necessary officers of the department and worthy of a living salary. 

The legislature responded by increasing the salary of the super- 
visors to $1200 a year. The Commissioner undertook the personal 
leadership of the work of supervision and instituted conferences of 
supervisors held at the rooms of the department during the holiday 
recess, where a few days were spent in earnest discussion of the prob- 
lem and general work of supervision.2!. Such was the beginning of 
the system of supervision prevailing in Porto Rico today. 

Development of Supervision, Provisions of Law of 1901. While 
it is impossible to give in this brief account a detailed development of 
supervision in Porto Rico, it is very important that its development 
be presented even if in general outline only. The first school law 
enacted by the insular legislature was that of April 9, 1901. This 
law continued the office of “English supervisors” and provided for 
the supervision of schools in the following terms: 


The supervision of schools is at all times under the immediate direction and 
guidance of the commissioner of education and shall in every manner consistent with 
the welfare of the schools cooperate and assist the local boards in performing their 
duties under the law. Their duties shall be prescribed by the commissioner of 
education and their services may be dispensed with at any time he may deem it 
necessary for the good of the schools todo so. They shall receive the cordial support 
and assistance of the teachers, parents, and school boards, and their function as 
representatives of the commissioner of education shall be respected and obeyed.” 
The official name used in reference to these officers was supervisors or superintendents 
of schools.”8 


Provisions of 1903 Law. The school law of 1903 changes the name 
of the office from “‘English supervisor” to “Superintendent of Schools” 
and it prescribes the duties of the superintendent in almost the same 
words as the law of 1901 and it adds the following: 


They should be furnished by the school boards with a suitable office for the trans- 
action of their public business or office rent in lieu thereof, but with no house rent. 


*1Report of the Commissioner of Edccation for Porto Rico, 1901, p. 39. 
School Laws of Porto Rico, April 9, 1901, page 23. 
*%Ibid., April 9, 1901, Sec. 23, p. 13. 


136 Educatton in Porto Rico 


They shall make annual report to the commissioner of education on the condition of 
the schools in their districts. Said report shall be presented June first of each and 
every year. They shall make such additional reports, statistical or otherwise, as 
the said commissioner may direct.*4 

With very few changes the duties of the superintendent have con= 
tinued to be the same, with a growing tendency to make this official 
a professional head, and decrease the clerical duties. The term 
“superintendent”? was changed later to “supervising principal’’; 
while new officers were appointed under the title of “‘general super- 
intendents to be subject in all respects to the commissioner, who 
shall prescribe their duties.’’° 

Additional Supervisors. In the academic year 1913-1914, due to 
the addition of manual training, household economy, agriculture, 
music and drawing, to the elementary course of study and due also 
to the pew emphasis placed on the study of the Spanish language, 
the division of supervision was augmented by a supervisor of Spanish, 
asupervisor of manual training, a supervisor of domestic science and 
household economy, and a supervisor of playgrounds and athletics.” 
In 1915 the term “‘supervising principal” was changed again to that 
of “supervisor” which is still the official name of that office. 

For administrative purposes the Island of Porto Rico is divided 
into political units known as municipalities. Each municipality con- 
sists generally of an urban center and an outlying rural territory, 
subdivided into wards or “‘barrios.”’ The Island is divided into 
seventy-six minicipalities. For the purpose of supervision it is 
divided into school districts. During the first year of the American 
occupation it was divided into sixteen school districts, which number 
continued until 1902. At that time the number was increased to 
nineteen. In the academic year 1903-1904, the number was reduced 
to eighteen. From 1904 to 1908 it continued to be divided into nine- 
teen districts. 

School Districts. At the session of the insular legislature in 1908, 
the Island was newly districted and provision was made for thirty- 
five school districts and an automatic increase as the necessity of the 
different districts demanded.” Since then the number of school dis- 
tricts has varied. From 1909 to 1911 there were forty-three, and 
at that time the number was decreased to forty-one, which is the 


*4Tbid., Approved March 12, 1903, Sec. 62. p. 19. 
*Ibid., Compiled by Carey Hickle, Aug. 1914, p. 47. 
Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1913, p. 358. 
2Ibid., 1913, p. 247. 


School Administration and Supervision 137 


present subdivision.?® The supervisor is the educational head of 
the school district. Today school districts are graded into classes: 
First, municipalities having one hundred schools or more; second, 
municipalities having from fifty to ninety-nine schools; third, munic- 
ipalities having less than fifty schools.?° 

Salaries of Supervisors. The salaries of supervisors have been in- 
creased from time to time. In 1899 when the office of supervisor was 
created, the salary was $50.00 a month. On July 1, 1899, the salary 
was increased to $900.00 a year, from which the supervisors paid 
their own transportation. The supervisors of San Juan and Ponce 
acted also as school principals and received a salary of $1200 a year.®° 
In 1901 the supervisor’s salary was increased to $1044 a year and 
soon to $1200 a year.*! On March 12, 1908 the school districts were 
classified into first, second and third classes and salaries fixed to the 
category of the district. In 1908 the salary schedule for supervisors 
was as follows: 

First class districts—$1500 per annum. 
First i ip 1300 “ ie 
hind) _ 1200 “ or 

In addition to the above fixed salaries, first and second class dis- 
trict supervisors received from the municipal school boards an allow- 
ance of $240 per annum for house and office rent, and third class dis- 
trict supervisors, $200 per annum for travelling expenses.” AlI- 
though the cost of living has increased, the salaries of supervisors 
remained stationery until 1918.* The salaries of the general super- 
visors as fixed by law in 1908 was $1800 per annum.* 

Personnel and Qualifications of Supervisors. The personnel and | 
qualifications of supervisors during the military government has al- 
ready been considered in this chapter. Until 1909, no law was 
passed prescribing academic standards for supervisors, or limiting 
the number to American or native born. The supervisors were ap- 
pointed by the Commissioner of Education, and he generally appoint- 
ed them on the basis of training, successful experience and general 
efficiency. The only requirement ever made was that of 1909, when 
the legislature ruled ‘‘that after June 30, 1909, no person shall occupy 


287Tbid., 1909, p. 250. 

29Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1915, p. 314. 

30Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1919, p. 39. 
31School Laws of Porto Rico, 1914 p. 46. 

256th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 34. 

*These have increased substantially in late years. 


138 Education in Porto Rico 


the position of supervising principal, who shall not hold a principal’s 
license issued by the Department of Education of Porto Rico, in 
pursuance of the provisions of section 38 of an act entitled “The 
Codified School Law of Porto Rico’ approved March 12, 1903.’’% 

Generally the supervisors have been teachers who have been pro- 
moted because of their efficiency. The question of birth has not been 
emphasized and if at all the department has been working toward 
having as many Porto Rican born as possible, realizing that the future 
of the public schools is in the hands of the native born. Regarding 
the supervising staff, the last commissioner of education, Dr. Paul 
G. Miller, had the following to say: 

At the present time of the forty-one district supervisors, thirteen are American 
born and twenty-eight are Porto Ricans; thirty-seven are men and four women; 
seven are graduates of American colleges or universities, but only one of these is a 
native Porto Rican; ten are holders of a normal school diploma, and all hold the 
principal’s teachers license. Practically all of them have taken special courses in 
normal schools, colleges and universities, and not a few of them have received prac- 
tical training in the field as assistants of older and experienced men. In fact the 
plan of assigning candidates, who apparently possess desirable qualifications for 
supervisorship to serve as assistants, has proved to be one of the most satisfactory 
means of assuring competency and success in the service.*4 

The Supervisor 1s Primarily an Administrative Officer. As to the 
efficiency of the work of supervision, much has been accomplished and 
still more remains to be accomplished. The work of the first super- 
visors has already been described. They were inspectors rather than 
supervisors. In the discusssion of this chapter it has been shown the 
change of name from time to time of the official called today a super- 
visor, almost every new Commissioner changing the name. The 
name used first was “English supervisor,” then later “superintendent” 
still later “supervising principal” and today “‘supervisor.”” Although 
the name changed, the duties did not change much, with the exception 
of the natural evolution of duties attached to the office. 

The mere history of the office shows that the duties of this official 
were such that it was hard to choose an appropriate name. He is 
not a supervisor, as the term is professionally used, that is, the person 
who supervises instruction, studies both teachers and pupils, and 
introduces methods to improve the teachers and the general character 


and quality of classroom activities, with the child as the ultimate 


3 School Laws of Porto Rico, 1914 p. 45. 
“Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 560. Since this date more Porto 
Ricans have been appointed. 


School Administration and Supervision 139 


aim. Most of the time of the supervisor is taken up with duties out- 
side of the school, duties of an administrative and clerical character. 
As to his visit to the average teacher he is “‘el inspector de escuelas,”’ 
which means exactly the same as the European inspector of schools. 
The teacher does not see a helper and a councillor in the supervisor, 
but a higher authority, a superior. 

Activities of the Supervisor. The office of supervisor in Porto Rico 
is a very important one, but his duties today are such that he has 
very little time, if any, for real supervision. A quotation from the 
report of the commissioner of education to the Governor will give 
the reader an idea of the function of supervisors in Porto Rico. “He 
receives and distributes all text books and supplies for the district 
and keeps a property account of all msular government property in 
his care. He makes the necessary change of reports in the teaching 
force, so as to enable the central office to make out pay rolls correctly. 
He attends school board meetings and assists in the many varied 
activities taken in these meetings, such as the establishment of new 
schools, the selection of building sites, school furniture and equipment, 
the nomination of teachers, the formation of the school board budget, 
and the making of repairs of the school buildings. He takes an 
active and in most cases the principal part in enforcing the present 
defective compulsory attendance law. He takes the leading part in 
the rural campaign to awaken the interest and secure the cooperation 
of the peasantry in school work. He visits schools and confers with 
teachers as to the improvement of their work, and prescribes and 
makes out examinations for pupils. He conducts examinations for 
candidates for the teachers licenses, confers with patrons of the school 
about numerous matters concerning the progress and welfare of the 
pupils, and renders numerous reports to the central office. During 
the recent war, the supervisor of schools has been a leader and pro- 
moter of practically all war activities, from the sale of war saving 
_ stamps to rendering assistance in carrying out the draft law.* 

Too Many Outside Duties of the Supervisor. The supervisor, ac- 
cordingly, has to do everything that nobody else will do, together 
with his official duties. He is more of a general efficiency man or 
social worker than a supervisor of instruction. However, these num- 
erous activities quoted above show the importance of the office of 
supervisor, the prestige he has in the community, and the possibilities 
within his power to penetrate into the life of the community and 


Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 560. 


140 Education in Porto Rico 


help out in its general uplift, if he had a staff to which he might dele- 
gate many of the present duties and responsibilities. 

But as it is today, he is not a supervisor of schools technically 
speaking, and he has not the time to supervise the instruction as a 
supervisor should. As it will be seen in another chapter, the rural 
teachers in Porto Rico are the ones who have the greatest task to 
perform and the greatest service to render. ~ Many rural teachers are 
poorly prepared for the performance of their duties and are sadly in 
need of supervision and help. A visit or two a month and often less 
does very little for them professionally. They need personal contact, 
help and sympathy from the supervisor which it is impossible for 
the present official to render with his multifarious duties. 


C. Tuer Locatu OFFICES 


The first school law of Porto Rico under the government of the 
United States, provided for the election of five school trustees in 
each municipality which composed the school board, and the large 
powers of these boards, plus their failure to perform their duties as 
prescribed by law, led more and more to the centralization of school 
administration. It remains to consider here the workings of the 
school boards from 1901 to 1919, when they were replaced by the 
municipal commissioner of education. 

Work of the Boards. During those eighteen years, the school boards 
were composed of three members, elected by the qualified voters of 
each municipality at the regular municipal election. As already 
noted, a municipality includes the whole municipal district, so these 
three officers were elected by all the voters, both urban and rural, 
and represented the same in all school matters. They were given ample 
powers to hold in their corporate names the title to land and other 
property acquired for school purposes; to be in charge of school build- 
ings in their respective districts; to build, repair, remodel and improve 
school property in general; to rent buildings for school purposes; to 
provide a suitable equipment and furniture for the school buildings; 
to employ janitors, nominate rural and graded teachers and principals 
and to perform such duties as the Commissioner of Education might 
require in accordance with the school laws. In case of a vacancy 
the Commissioner appointed a member to serve in the place of the 
retiring member. 

The Supervisors and the Board. The supervisor of schools was an 
ex-officio member of the board, and was entitled to participate in its 


School Administration and Supervision 141 


discussions, to receive notice of its meetings, to examine its minutes, 
records and accounts in like manner as a duly elected member of the 
board, but had no vote. He shared with the school board the right 
to assign the teachers to their respective grades and schools. The 
supervisors and the boards worked together effectively with rare 
exceptions of friction due generally to misunderstandings and not to 
lack of good will. The school boards were the direct representative 
of the people, while the supervisor was the representative of the de- 
partment and thereby of the insular government. 

Municipal Commissioner of Education. Under the new municipal 
law school boards are abolished and in place thereof there is provided 
a municipal commissioner of education who has all the powers and 
duties formerly exercised by the school boards except the voting on 
the school budget. There is also a supervisor of schools in every 
district who acts as professional head and representative of the 
department of education. 

Criticisms and Answers. It has been charged that such a central- 
ized system curbed local initiative, and thereby delayed preparation 
for self-government; that as each district elects its mayor, now, its 
municipal assembly, its representatives and its senators, so they 
should elect its sheool officers; that such a centralized system of 
administration takes away from the people a further opportunity for 
the practice of self-government. 

In answer to such contentions, it might be stated that the other 
machinery of government furnishes ample opportunity for lessons 
and for practice in self-government, especially now with the new 
municipal law, when more people will take part in local politics. 
At the same time, the new municipal law shows the tendency of the 
legislature to centralize more the educational machinery, for only 
one school officer is selected to represent the people, the municipal 
commissioner of education, instead of the school board of three 
members. The failure of the local boards of the Spanish régime and 
the power of the Governor in spite of the local boards, as well as the 
inefficiency and lack of initiative of the school trustees during the 
American military government, should not be forgotten. 

General Tendency toward Centralization. Moreover, the general 
tendency in the last fifty years has been toward centralization as the 
most efficient way to conduct a school system. This tendency has 
not been observable only in Europe where the governments have 
used the public schools for nationalistic ends, but also in the United 


142 Education in Porto Rico 


States, known as the champion of democratic ideals. Centralization 
of the educational system in Porto Rico has done away with many 
of the petty local political issues entering the schools, and even with 
such a highly centralized system local politics have entered too much 
into school matters and many a good teacher has been left without a 
position because he or she did not happen to belong to the party in 
power, while inefficient teachers have been nominated by local boards 
not because they were better qualified but because they were willing 
to comply with the requirements of the politicians. The people of 
Porto Rico are well acquainted with the fee of twenty-five dollars 
that each teacher had to promise to pay to the party in power before 
he received his nomination from the municipal school board. Only 
the determination of the last Commissioner of Education to do away 
with such corruption on the part of the local boards secured good 
teachers the assurance of their positions. 

Conclusion. It is the opinion of the writer that the present highly 
centralized educational system is the best for Porto Rico. Whether 
the Commissioner remains an appointee of the President of the United 
States or whether he will be selected by the insular authorities, the 
high degree of centralization should be continued, and the Commis- 
sioner will be the one man responsible for the success of the system. 
When something goes wrong or when the results achieved do not come 
up to expectations, there will be one man who will be responsible 
for undoing the wrong or for achieving the results compatible with 
the existing circumstances. However, there is the danger in the 
present system to add to the official duties of the Commissioner out- 
side duties to the extent that his usefulness as the administrator of 
the school system is impaired. There is also the danger of the 
Commissioner making of his office a bureaucracy by failing to delegate 
powers to his subordinates. Since these evils are so imminent, so 
much more the need that the Commissioner be a man qualified to 
overcome these dangers. | 

Complaints have been heard from time to time that the central- 
ized scheme of administration lends itself to inefficiency on the part 
of the Commissioner, that he would not choose as subordinates men 
of ability and training, but only those whom he could handle. 
This might be true, therefore the importance of choosing the Com- 
missioner on his personal qualities, preparation and ability instead 
of on his political adherence. 

Commissioners have been accused of being tyrannical and unjust. 


School Administration and Supervision 143 


It would be an impossibility to find a perfect, infallible commissioner, 
one who did not make mistakes, who was liked by all and who pleased 
everybody. The fact that such a man cannot be found does not 
take away the virtues of the centralized system of school adminis- 
tration as the one under which the best results can be achieved. A 
comparative glance at Part I and Part II of this work shows a great 
contrast and reveals the progress attained in education in Porto Rico 
in the last two decades, not a small part of which has been due largely 
to the centralized control of public education. 


CHAPTER IX 
THE TEACHING PROFESSION 


A. Preriop oF READJUSTMENT TO OcTOBER 1901 


The Need of Trained Teachers to Begin the System. When the 
United States officials began to reform the system of public instruc- 
tion, one of the most serious problems they encountered was the ques- 
tion of teachers. The problem was not only one of teacher training, 
but also of what to do with the Spanish teachers they found. The 
first school law, issued May 1, 1899, under the governorship of Gen- 
eral Guy V. Henry, organized public instruction from the elementary 
school to the university, and established new requirements for teachers 
in the public school system, that is, requirements for elementary, 
secondary and university teachers. Although there was no university, 
there were no secondary schools, and very few and poor elementary 
schools, without American trained teachers to teach in them, yet 
the law was supposed to go into effect, “‘on and after the beginning of 
the fall term of 1899.” 

Provisions of the Law Regarding Teachers: Unwersity Teachers. 
“Every professor, instructor, or teacher of any grade in the University 
of Porto Rico or any allied professional school except the School of 
Commerce, who receives a salary from the public funds, must possess 
(a) a degree from a college or gymnasium of America or Europe, or 
a diploma equivalent to such a degree, showing that he has completed 
satisfactorily a course of at least three years in subjects higher than 
the secondary school studies, and (b) a degree as doctor or an equiv- 
alent degree from a university of America or of Europe of standing, 
showing that he has completed a course of at least two years in the 
special subject in which he will give instruction.” 

Secondary and Normal School Teachers. “Every professor, in- 
structor or teacher of any grade in any secondary school of Puerto 
Rico (normal school or high school) except critic teachers, and 
teachers of drawing, sloyd, manual training or music, must possess 
the qualifications stated in clause (a) of the first paragraph of this 


(144) 


The Teaching Profession 145 


act. Critic teachers in normal schools must be graduates of normal 
schools where model school work is done in connection with profes- 
sional training, or graduates of pedagogical courses in a college of 
repute with experience in model school work.”’ 

Elementary School Principals. ‘“‘Principals of graded schools must 
be college or normal school graduates.” 

Graded School Teachers. ‘‘Graded school teachers must be grad- 
uates of normal schools, or graduates of secondary schools preparing 
for the best American universities with at least one year’s experience 
as a teacher.” 

Rural School Teachers. ‘Rural school teachers must possess cer- 
tificates granted by the Bureau of Education upon examination in 
accordance with the regulation provided for in this act.” 

‘“‘“Any teacher possessing qualification for teaching in schools of 
a higher grade may teach in a school of a lower grade.””! 

The provisions of this law regarding teachers remind one of the 
1865 decree, setting qualifications for teachers to go into effect in 
four months, when there were no teachers of such qualifications nor 
ways to prepare them. It does not seem the work of an American, 
but it was. The law was good but there were no teachers who could 
qualify to teach, therefore the necessity of securing teachers in order 
to continue with public education. 

Action of the Board of Education. In order to be able to open the 
schools in the fall term, the Board of Education had to certify teach- 
ers, and in August 21, 1899, at the regular meeting of the Board the 
report of a committee upon teachers’ titles, previously appointed, 
was adopted as follows: “that in admitting new candidates to the 
profession of teaching, certificates shall be granted only upon ex- 
amination or upon diplomas from reputable normal schools, colleges, 
and universities; that the standard of examinations shall be main- 
tained equal to that observed in New York State, Ohio, Minnesota, 
California and other States of the Union. 

“That all teachers of Porto Rico holding superior titles under the 
former law shall receive principals’ certificates. 

“That all teachers holding rural or auxiliary titles under the former 
law shall receive rural certificates.’ 

Examinations. Moreover the Board established certain regula- 


1The School Laws of the Island of Porto Rico, May 1, 1899, Part II. Laws concerning 
Public Instruction, Sec. V. 
256th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 31. 


146 Education in Porto Rico 


tions for teachers’ examinations upon which rural, graded and prin- 
cipals’ certificates were granted. The examinations embraced Spanish 
and English, arithmetic, geography, United States history and school 
methods; while for a principals’ certificate especial examinations in 
algebra, geometry and physical science were required.’ As a result 
of this, by January 1900, 162 certificates were granted by the Insular 
Board of Education; 775 were granted in exchange for titles held under 
Spanish Law; 26 upon examination, and the rest were granted to 
American teachers who taught in English.t| Thus the problem of 
supply of teachers was solved for the time being. 

Summer School, 1899. In the meantime the Board of Education 
began to make provisions for the training of teachers and opened in 
July 1899 a summer school for teachers. The work was confined to 
the grammar school subjects. There were 49 boys and 27 girls in 
attendance in the practice school held during the forenoon, and 
about 30 teachers attended these sections for observation and practice, 
and attended special afternoon classes in the grammar school subjects 
and English.° 

The Model and Training School. The summer school opened in 
the same rooms, September 24, 1899, with a high school department. 
All instruction was given in English and all text books were in Eng- 
lish. It must be kept in mind that the Porto Rico pupils knew very 
little of this language. The school had a good faculty of eight 
teachers. In January 1900 it was moved to a twelve room frame 
building in Puerta de Tierra, erected for its accommodation, when a 
department of Spanish under Dr. Antonio Rosell, and a department 
of biology were established. There were other plans for the school 
and among other things it was to be used as a practice school for 
the training of teachers. A kindergarten training class of young 
women was started. The school and all its plans came to an end 
July 1, 1900, when fire destroyed the building. This school had no 
relation to the school system, being an institution unique in its 
character. During the year of its existence it was not successful, 
having no aim, and very little is known of its accomplishments during 
the year. Dr. Groff said, regarding it, that “It was originally started 
as a school for American children.” Of its work he said, “It was a 


56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 41. ‘Tbid., p. 42. 
5Ibid., p. 36. SIbid., p. 36. 


The Teaching Profession 147 


laughing stock for all who knew anything about schools, but I thought 
it best to let it die easily.’ 

The Fajardo Normal School. In July 1899 the director of public 
instruction issued a call to all the municipalities to issue a bonus for 
the establishment within their jurisdiction of a normal and indus- 
trial school. The municipality of Fajardo made an offer of $20,000 
for the school, provided the insular government would appropriate 
a like amount. The insular government accepted the offer and a 
committee of the Board of Education inspected the Fajardo sites. 
The Board authorized the purchase of over 93 acres of land, and plans 
and specifications were prepared by the department of public works 
for an eight-room school building and a four-room shop and labora- 
tory, to be erected immediately. It was the design of the committee 
that this institution should furnish manual training courses and courses 
in agriculture and that there should be connected with it a model 
school for practice teaching and a normal department.® 

Nothing more was done for almost a year and the citizens of Fajardo 
were rather impatient at the delay. In the summer of 1900 Dr. 
Groff authorized the opening of a summer session to be maintained 
three months. One teacher was to do the entire work, but later 
another was appointed and a small primary school was opened. The 
school continued until October 1, 1900, but its work had no value 
for professional training. It was a normal school in name only, as 
with few exceptions the pupils should have been in the public schools 
and were not prepared to take up professional work. 

Normal Course Begun in Fajardo. As will be noted by consulting 
the map, Fajardo is situated on the extreme north-eastern corner of 
the Island and very difficult of access. To reach it from the other 
parts of the Island was very expensive. In this respect the choice 
of the location was an unfortunate one as the average teacher candi- 
date could not afford the trip. Nevertheless the school was opened 
October 1, 1900, with a faculty of five trained teachers. It was 
equipped and prepared to receive one hundred pupils, but less than 
twenty enrolled at the opening of the school. The small enrollment 
was due in no slight degree to its inaccessibility. The industrial 
department was not opened. The normal department offered the 
following course of study: 


TReport of the Commissioner me Sate for Porto Rico, 1900, p. 20. 
856th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 
*Report of the Commissioner of Tduvotion for Porto Rico, 1901, pp. 41-42. 


148 Education in Porto Rico 


PREPARATORY YEAR 

First Semester: (1) Professional Studies: school management, psychology and 
observations in model departments and child study (four hours a week). (2) Language: 
English grammar. Spanish grammar (four hours a week) (4) Science: Descriptive 
geometry, simple biology (three hours a week). (5) Art: Penmanship, composition 
(English), music, modeling in clay (four hours a week). (6) Civic Studies: History 
of Porto Rico (three hours a week). 

Second Semester: (1) Professional Studies: Methods, standard psychology, observa- 
tion in model department continued (four hours a week). (2) Language: English 
grammar, Spanish grammar, elocution (four hours a week). (3) Mathematics: Arith- 
metic (three hours a week). (4) Science: Physical geography, psychology and hygiene 
(three hours a week). (5) Art: Composition (English and Spanish), music, drawing 
(four hours a week). (6) Civic Studies: History of the United States, colonial and 
Revolutionary epochs (three hours a week). 


JUNIOR YEAR 

First Semester: (1) Professional Studies: History of ancient education, principles of 
education (four hours a week). (2) Language: American literature (three hours a 
week). (3) Mathematics: Algebra (three hours a week). (4) Science (three hours a 
week). (5) Art: Composition (English and Spanish), drawing, plastic modeling 
(four hours a week). (6) Civic Studies; United States history, administration epoch 
(three hours a week). 

Second Semester: (1) Professional Studies: History of modern education; educa- 
tional theory (4 hours a week). (2) Language: Spanish and English literature (3 
hours a week). (3) Mathematics: Geometry (3 hours a week). (4) Science: Biology 
(3 hours a week). (5) Art: Composition (English and Spanish); water colors, gymnas- 
tics (4 hours a week). (6) Civic Studies: General history (modern); elementary 
civics (3 hours a week). 

SENIOR YEAR 

To be deferred.'® 

The school was not a success, first because it was inaccessible and 
only a small number of students could be attracted to it; second, the 
faculty was not in harmony; and third, the people would not support 
a school in’ Fajardo. They could not entertain the idea of its es- 
tablishment in such an inaccessible place."". Doctor Brumbaugh, be- 
ing convinced of these facts, began to take steps to remove the normal 
school to Rio Piedras, seven miles from the city of San Juan. After 
some legal questions had been solved the site for the new normal 
school was secured and a building begun immediately, which was 
ready for occupancy May, 1902. In the meantime the Insular 
Normal School began its work October 28, 1901, in the Governor’s 
palace in Rio Piedras. Such was the beginning of the normal school, 
the nucleus of what is to-day the University of Porto Rico.” 


10Report of the Commissioner ee Education for Porto Rico, 1901, pp. 42-43. 
U]bid., 1901, p. 43. Ibid 


The Teaching Profession 149 


Teachers’ Institutes. The first teachers’ institutes, sometimes called 
summer institutes and summer schools due to the length of the session, 
lasting several weeks in the summer, were another agency the de- 
partment of education used for the training of teachers. In the 
summer of 1900 a group of teachers were sent throughout the Island 
to conduct a series of teachers’ institutes. For many reasons, which 
are not necessary to our study, these institutes were a failure.” 

Although the educated classes in Porto Rico have always appre- 
ciated the schools and have done their part to support education, the 
masses of the people which are of course in the majority, have been 
ignorant and have not realized the need of an education. The school 
to them was an institution imposed upon the people for reasons not 
apparent to them, hence the need of propaganda to bring the claims 
of the public schools before the masses of the people. The Teachers’ 
Institutes, or Teachers’ Conferences, as they were generally called, 
were used by the Department of Education to make propaganda in 
behalf of the public schools. Early in the spring of 1901 the Com- 
missioner organized a series of conferences to be given throughout 
the Island the purpose of which was not so much to talk about 
methods or show the native teachers how to teach, as simply to 
spread the gospel of the public schools. 

The Commissioner invited two American educators to ac- 
company him in the campaign to popularize public education. The 
Honorable O. T. Carson, ex-school commissioner of the State of 
Ohio, ex-president of the N. E. A., and editor of the Ohio Educational 
Monthly, and the Honorable Henry Houck, for many years deputy 
superintendent of public instruction for the State of Pennsylvania, 
were secured to accompany the Commissioner. They volunteered 
their services without compensation and reached the Island March 
8, 1901. The meetings began inSan Juan and Rio Piedras with five 
sessions on the eighth and ninth of March. They were well attended. 
General educational ideals were presented and the teachers were led 
to understand something of the purpose of an educational system. 
Several mass meetings were held in Mayagtiez, San German, Yauco, 
Ponce and other towns with marked success. Many teachers 
attended, but above all citizens whom the speakers wished to interest 
in the public school." 

Summer Normal Institute. In the summer of 1901, a summer nor- 
mal institute was held in San Jaun for ten weeks. The attendance 


8Ibid., 1900, p. 16. “Ibid., 1901, pp. 25-28. 


150 Education in Porto Rico 


was so large that no room in the school buildings was adequate for 
the opening exercises. The city theater was secured and an attend- 
ance of over 1600 crowded in. Eight hundred thirty-six people were 
enrolled as pupils, instructed by a faculty of 16 teachers. The pupils 
were school teachers in active service and candidates for teachers’ 
licenses. At the close of the session an examination was held and 
there were issued 161 new rural certificates, 26 graded and 8 principals 
certificates. The certified teachers who attended the sessions re- 
turned to their work better prepared to perform their respective 
tasks. 

Too much can not be said in praise of those who attended the summer 
institute, many of them making great sacrifice in order to attend and 
to improve themselves. The curriculum included English, Spanish, 
arithmetic, algebra, geometry, history of the United States and Porto 
Rico, physiology, methods and management in teaching, and nature 
study. There was also maintained a primary school which served as 
a model for the teachers. Many of the candidates not successful 
in securing a license to teach entered the Insular normal school in 
the autumn." , 

Porto Rican Teachers in the United States. Another method used 
by the department of education to improve the preparation of the 
teachers was to secure for a number of them the rare opportunity of 
study in the United States. During the summer vacation of 1899, 
forty-eight Porto Rican teachers were granted government trans- 
portation to the United States in order that they might study the 
English language and American school methods. Many of these 
teachers returned after the vacation was over and rendered excellent 
service in the schools. The States of New York, Vermont, New Hamp- 
shire, and Minnesota offered free tuition to Porto Rican students in 
their normal schools, and the Chautauqua Assembly granted a like 
privilege.1® 

Besides the teachers, picked youths from the public schools were 
sent to preparatory schools in the United States. By the summer 
of 1901, 219 pupils had been sent North and were under the personal 
oversight of the Commissioner of Education.” Some of these pupils 
were sent to very good schools, while others were not so fortunate, 
mistakes having been made in selecting some of the schools. Never- 


1©Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1901, pp. 28-35. 
656th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 42. 
“Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1901, pp. 74-75. 


The Teaching Profession 151 


theless the majority of them succeeded, and many of them returned 
later and made and are making their contribution to the educational 
as well as to the general progress of the Island. 

First American Teachers in Porto Rico. This account of the early 
efforts put forth to train teachers for the public schools of Porto Rico 
would not be complete without some reference to the first American 
teachers who came to Porto Rico. They were pioneers in a strange 
land, among peoples of a different language and in an entirely different 
civilization from what they were accustomed to at home. The first 
American teachers in Porto Rico have been severely criticized by 
some, while more thoughtful people have been more charitable in 
their judgment and have not forgotten to acknowledge their ser- 
vices and rendered them due praise. Many a girl came from the 
United States all alone and was assigned to a small central town, 
where she knew no one, heard no English. Often she became home- 
sick, resigned and went home. She was charged with being an 
adventurer and an undesirable teacher. Nevertheless, it was the 
most natural thing for her to get homesick under the circumstances, 
to want to go home, and to do so if she could. At the same time 
there were adventurers, teachers who were not the most desirable 
nor the best prepared. It is well to quote here Dr. Brumbaugh’s 
evaluation of these teachers as the opinion of the man who came in 
contact with their work. He said in part, “These American teachers 
at the outset were mostly young men who came to Porto Rico with 
the American army. None of them knew Spanish, and some of 
them knew little English. Gradually the quality was improved by 
the addition of groups of teachers, mostly women, from the United 
States ... These teachers were selected solely upon application 
and testimonial, and were not always desirable persons for the work 
nor typical representatives of the vast army of American teachers, 
but some of them merit the warmest commendation and the greatest 
respect. Under circumstances most unusual and conditions most 
unpropitious they entered upon their labors and did nobly. Living 
often in a remote village, without a single associate who spoke the 
English language, they struggled on and accomplished much good. 
One group deserves no credit—the seekers after novelty and new ex- 
periences, mere adventurers, who imposed upon the administration 
and the children and who used the salary and position of teacher 
solely to see a new country for a year and then return. Fortunately 
these are gone and the better teachers remain to carry on a really 


152 Education in Porto Rico 


helpful and arduous task. The people of Porto Rico patiently bore 
with these adventurers and quietly longed for their departure.’ 


B. AcADEMIC AND PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION SINCE 1901 


The Normal School. The normal school being established in the 
Governor’s summer palace at Rio Piedras opened its first session the 
last of October 1901 with over 100 pupils. Of these several were 
rejected and others allowed to try the course of study for longer or 
shorter periods, but finally were rejected as better fitted for the work 
in the common schools. Of those who remained, thirteen were poorly 
equipped, but were allowed to remain and formed a preparatory 
class, following the curriculum of the eighth grade in the public 
schools. The enrollment for the year was ninety-one, thirteen in 
the preparatory year, sixty-two in the first year and sixteen in the 
second year.!® On May 30, 1902 the school was moved to the normal 
school building especially constructed for the purpose. 

The new building offered great advantages to the pupils. It had 
large and airy class rooms, an auditorium seating three hundred 
persons, two gymnasiums, one for boys and one for girls—equipped 
with showerbaths and lockers and all necessary appliances for physical 
training, plenty of room for laboratories to be installed as needed and 
a large room for a library.”° In its new quarters the normal school 
opened its regular session September 29, 1902, with an enrollment of 
136 and offering a three-year course beside the preparatory year, 
that is, three years after graduation from the eighth grade. The 
school graduated its first class of four, June 19, 1903.74 

The Normal Department of the Unwersity of Porto Rico.* The normal 
school was established, at work, and producing results. In the mean- 
time by act of the legislature, the University of Porto Rico was 
founded, March 12, 1903.22 The normal school was reorganized as 
the normal department of the University of Porto Rico to comply 
with the law, which provided for “‘a normal department to be known 
as the insular normal school for the training of teachers in the subjects 


18Report of the Commissioner, of Education, 1901, pp. 14-15. 

19Tbd., 1902. p. 121. Report of the Principal of the Insular Normal School. 

207Tbid., p. 36. 

*17bid., 1904 pp. 166-167. Report of the Principal of Insular N. S. 

*See chapter on Secondary and Higher Education. 

22An act establishing the University of Porto Rico, to amend section 973 (923) of 
the Civil Code of Porto Rico and for other purposes. Report of the Commissioner of 
Education, 1903, p. 251 ff. 


The Teaching Profession 153 


taught in the public schools of Porto Rico and to be supported by 
annual appropriations by the legislative assembly.’’? This act turned 
over to the Board of Trustees of the University of Porto Rico the 
insular normal school, consisting at this time of the main normal 
school building, a practice school in its own building, an agricultural 
station building, a principal’s residence, about 100 acres of land to- 
gether with their equipment. 

The insular normal school thus became the normal department of 
the University and the only department in operation at the time 
the University was founded. The entrance requirements were 
now advanced to the completion of the eighth grade or examinations 
on the subjects of that grade. Above this the normal department 
offered a three-year course, and a course for rural teachers was also 
established.” 

In 1905 the regular normal course was increased to four years be- 
yond the eighth grade. At the end of the first two years those who 
applied and passed the required examinations were granted certificates 
to teach in the graded schools, and those completing the four-year 
course received the diploma of the school which entitled the bearer 
to a principalship in the graded schools after one year of teaching 
experience.” 

In the meantime a school of eight grades had been developed in 
connection with the normal department, which served as a model and 
practice school to the normal students. The seventh and eighth 
grades, moreover, served as preparatory grades for the normal 
course. The University continued offering this course of study for 
the preparation of teachers until 1910. By that time the department 
was well established, had turned out many teachers and was being 
patronized by the young people more and more. During the nine 
years of its existence it had graduated 82 students in the four-year 
course, and had issued 299 certificates to teach in the graded schools 
to those who had pursued only a two-year course. While the tuition 
in the normal department had always been and still is gratis, stu- 
dents were further assisted by a number of scholarships granted each 
year by the insular legislature to the most meritorious as well as 
most needy students in the public schools, and tended to cover the 
cost of board in Rio Piedras. The school library had grown in the 


2Ibid., Section 18. 
“4 Ihid., 1904, p. 22. 
Ibid, 1904, p. 298. 67 bid., 1906, pp. 100-102. 


154 Education in Porto Rico 


meantime and had 4,000 volumes. The course of the practice school 
had been raised to nine years, serving as a preparatory course to en- 
trance in the normal department.” 

At the reorganization of the University in 1910, the entrance re- 
quirements of the normal department were advanced to the com- 
pletion of the ninth grade. The normal courses after that con- 
sisted of two and four years each, leading to the graded teacher’s 
certificate and to the diploma of the normal respectively.22 Even 
against this advance in the entrance requirements, the enrollment 
of the school increased, and by 1915 the normal department of the 
University alone had 499 students. 

The academic requirements for admission and graduation remained 
the same until 1915 when the completion of the tenth grade was 
required for entrance, the elementary course of two years was elimi- 
nated, and all students pursued a four-year course, thus giving the 
equivalent of two years of college work to all graduates. Graduates 
of the high schools, desiring to enter the normal department, were 
admitted and given a two-year normal course.”® This change was 
felt immediately in the enrollment of the normal department of the 
university. Very few students enrolled in the first and second year 
courses because nearly all candidates preferred to complete the high 
school work and obtain their diplomas before entering the two- 
year course for high school graduates.*° 

Because of the need of rural teachers the normal department 
formulated and adopted a special course for rural teachers to go into 
effect in 1917. The special course consisted of work in agriculture, 
manual training and home economics, elementary science, rural 
school management, rural school methods, and rural hygiene and 
sanitation.*! This course proved to be a success, and was a move for 
specialization in teacher training. In addition to this course, and 
to those preparing principals of graded schools and teachers of home 
economics, plans began to be studied for the preparation of teachers 
of the primary, intermediate, and upper grades of the elementary 
school, together with a scheme of guidance for the purpose of aiding 
the prospective. teacher in his selection of a field of specialization.*? 

Graduates of the normal school department who wished to prepare 


*7Ibid., 1910, pp. 36-38. 

*8Ibid., p. 36. 

227Tbid., 1915, p. 391. 30[bid., 1917, p. 503. 
Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1916, p. 409. 
2Ibid., 1917, p. 503. 


The Teaching Profession 155 


themselves for administrative positions or to teach in high or con- 
tinuation schools, were given the opportunity to enter the College of 
Liberal Arts,** with the provisional rank of Juniors, and to complete 
the course in two years, receiving the degree of B.A. in Education. 
The University practice school had developed by this time a four- 
year high school course and those preparing to teach in high schools 
practiced in the University High School.* 

In order to articulate better the university with the public school 
system, during the academic year 1917-1918, questionnaires were 
distributed to all supervisors of schools and to former students of the 
normal school who were teaching in the public schools. The question- 
naires were devised to secure the criticism of former students and 
representatives of the public school system, on the courses offered at 
the University for the training of teachers.** This was in prepara- 
tion for the reorganization of the courses of study which took place in 
1919. At that reorganization the normal department became the 
Normal College of the University of Porto Rico with its eight-grade 
elementary practice school and the University High School.*6 

The Normal College. Graduation from an accredited high school 
and the attainment of a specific standard of scholarship are the 
requisites for admission to the Normal College, with the exception of 
the course for the preparation of rural teachers. The Normal 
College gives a two-year course for high school graduates leading to 
the English graded teacher’s license; a three-year course for high 
school graduates, for the preparation of special teachers of home 
economics leading to a diploma and license to teach home economics 
in elementary and continuation schools. A supplementary one-year 
course in home economics leads to the degree of B.A. in Education 
and prepares for teaching of home economics in high schools. 

The Normal College offers two other courses leading to the degree 
of B.A. in Education—one a two-year course supplementing the 
normal course and preparing for teaching in public and continua- 
tion and high schools, and the other a four-year course for high 
school graduates preparing for high school teaching and principal- 
ships. Those who have satisfactorily completed the ninth grade 
in the public schools or any accredited high or continuation school 


33See Part II, Chapter on Secondary and Higher Education. 
%4 Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1917,p. 503. 

Ibid., 1918, p. 562. 

Ibid. 1919, pp. 609-611. 


156 Education in Porto Rico 


may be admitted to the special one-year course for the preparation of 
rural teachers.’ 

Since its foundation, to the end of the academic year 1920, the 
Normal School issued the following certificates: 


Degree of B.A. in Education.................... 2 
Elementary Normal Certificates.................. 1007 
Rural ‘TVéachers:Certificates 000 0/0 eee 296 
Normal School Diplomas. i. at, 2 eee 420 
Wh Age at alse menI NL Al ite MRK Ne nieta TONY Ye b) Sd 1725** 


Teachers Trained in High Schools. Besides the normal school, 
the Ponce high school offered normal courses for several years and at 
the completion of the high school course graduates were entitled to 
the graded license to teach in the public schools.*® The Ponce high 
school prepared altogether 117 students to teach. In 1919 an act 
was passed by the legislature authorizing the Commissioner of 
Education to establish training courses in high schools for rural 
teachers and for other purposes.*° As a result special courses for the 
preparation of rural teachers were offered in the high schools of 
San Juan, Ponce, Mayagiiez and Aguadilla and a total of 57 teachers’ 
licenses were issued on the basis of high school diplomas in June 
1920.4 

Improvement of Teachers in Service. The summer schools have 
been another agency employed to prepare teachers. Many graduates 
from high schools have attended the summer schools held in Rio 
Piedras and Mayagitiez and have qualified for the rural teachers 
license and for the license of teacher of manual training. The 
teachers’ conferences and institutes have been another agency which 
has contributed greatly to the improvement of the teachers in the 
service. This was specially true in the early days of the American 
occupation, due to the fact that the teachers had not had professional 
training and the meetings served not only as a source of professional 
inspiration but also as a source of instruction. However, with the 
development of professional training the emphasis was shifted 
slowly from the teachers’ institutes to teachers’ meetings and con- 
ferences. 


Annual Catalogue and Announcement of the University of Porto Rico, 1921-1922, pp. 
33-34. 

*8{bid., pp. 104-32. 39Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1913, p. 327. 

407bid., 1919, p. 581, “Thid., 1920, p. 421. 


The Teaching Profession 157 


In the academic year 1919-1920 the institutes were revived again. 
In the beginning of the school system the outside speaker came to 
talk to the teachers and magnified public education as the best 
means to prepare a people for citizenship and self-government; in the 
later days the question of method and insular educational problems 
have occupied the attention of the teachers in their meetings. In the 
beginning the speakers who generally came from the continent and 
did not know Spanish, nor the specific problems of the Island, pre- 
sented to the teachers general educational ideals through interpreters, 
the teachers receiving instruction at second hand and often 
very unsatisfactorily; in the later days native teachers have taken 
over this work and in their teachers’ meetings, conferences and 
institutes, they deal with the practical problems which they encounter 
in their daily work. 

Propaganda Conferences. Reference has already been made to 
teachers’ conferences when Dr. Brumbaugh was Commissioner, but 
in order to appreciate the contrast better, other accounts of teachers’ 
meetings and conferences at the beginning will be cited in comparison 
with those of the present day. Doctor Samuel McCune Lindsay, 
Commissioner in 1902, reporting on teachers’ meetings and confer- 
ences says: “In addition to the conference of the supervisors it was 
found advisable to continue the plan of holding a series of meetings 
in different parts of the island for the purpose of raising a healthy 
and active interest in normal education and in the public school. 

“For this purpose the commissioner invited Dr. James Earl 
Russell, dean of Teachers College, Columbia University, New York 
City, one of the best training schools for teachers in the country, and 
himself a man widely known as a leader of educational thought in 
the States, and Dr. C. Hanford Henderson, a pioneer worker, writer 
and thinker in the work of manual training, physical culture and other 
highly important features of modern education, to accompany him 
on a brief trip to visit some of the schools of the island. These 
gentlemen very kindly consented to give their services without re- 
muneration and in this way do what they could to assist the educa- 
tional work in Porto Rico. Their travelling expenses were paid by 
the Department and no other returns were made for the very valuable 
services which they rendered, except the grateful thanks since ex- 
pressed in many ways from teachers and parents in the leading towns 
in Porto Rico. 

“For eight days they held meetings and gave stirring addresses, 


158 Education in Porto Rico 


and by reason of favorable weather and excellent preparation for 
travelling facilities we succeeded in covering a large territory. Start- 
ing from San Juan we addressed meetings of pupils, teachers, and 
general public in the school houses and public squares of the following 
places: Manati, Arecibo, Camuy, Quebradillas, Aguadilla, Maya- 
giiez, Cabo-Rojo, Sabana Grande, San German, Yauco, Ponce, 
Cayey, Coamo, Rio Piedras and San Juan. One day as many as 
seven meetings were held, and, notwithstanding the physical fatigue 
of this rapid trip, we met with such enthusiastic reception wherever 
we went that all felt encouraged and repaid. The general public 
is much more interested in matters of public education in Porto 
Rico than in most communities in the States.” 

Teachers’ Conferences and Meetings Today. In contrast with 
the above meetings of propaganda, Dr. Paul G. Miller, the last 
Commissioner, reports:—‘“The department conducted three-days 
teachers’ institutes in nine different centres. The character of the 
meetings was inspirational as well as instructional. The day meet- 
ings were devoted to the observation and discussion of model demon- 
stration classes, as well as to the treatment of professional topics 
relating to the management, methods and principles of teaching. 
Representatives of the department and of the University of Porto 
Rico took part as conductors, and gave addresses on important 
phases of school work. Local and outside speakers were employed.’ 

During the academic year 1919-1920, there were held 1975 teachers’ 
meetings. The purpose of those meetings was to discuss educational 
questions more or less common to all. Demonstration classes 
followed by analysis and criticism were used. Some of the topics 
discussed in the teachers’ meetings were: Teaching of oral English 
in the primary grades; Teaching of arithmetic in the primary grades; 
Proper assignment of lessons in the intermediate and upper grades; 
Proper motivation of the work in all grades; The Zaner system of 
penmanship; Teaching of reading and writing of Spanish in the 
first grade; Making the work in agriculture of most practical benefit 
to country people; The Home Garden movement; The Rural 
Uplift movement. During the year there were held: 1,015 urban 
teachers meetings; 773 rural teachers meetings; 187 general meet- 
ings; total, 1,975 teachers meetings.“ 


“Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1902, p. 38. 
“Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1920, p. 429. 
“Tbid., p. 430. 


The Teaching Profession 159 


Professional Reading Courses. Still another agency which has 
contributed greatly to the improvement of teachers in service is the 
professional reading courses. In 1899, the Board of Education 
realized the value of this sort of instruction, but had to contend with 
the fact that there was no professional literature in Spanish to put 
in the hands of the teachers. To remedy this, the Board began to 
publish in pamphlet form what were called Teachers’ Bulletins, some- 
times in English, sometimes in Spanish and other times in both 
languages. These little bulletins were sent around to the teachers 
bearing instructions on topics such as the following:—The outline 
of the Course of Study;* Grading Pupils and arranging Programs; 
How to teach Reading; Plant Lessons, etc.“ Good Health and How 
to Attain It; The Food We Eat; The Liquid We Drink; The Air 
We Breath; etc.*7 The pamphlet form of instruction gave place to 
the Teachers’ Manual, a book of six hundred pages in English and 
Spanish, prepared by the Board of Education, the purpose of which 
was, “to place in the hands of the teachers and school officials of this 
Island a brief account in Spanish of the educational thought and 
literature of the system of school organization: at present prevailing 
in the United States.’’4 

As the teachers learned English current professional literature in 
that language began to be introduced. Later as the normal school 
developed, it began to introduce and encourage the reading of pro- 
fessional literature and since then the Department of Education has 
had as one of its chief objective, what it terms, “‘Professional Reading 
Courses.”’ The last Commissioner of Education reports as follows 
with respect to Professional Reading Courses: ‘“During the academic 
year 1919-1920, the following books were read in the reading courses. 
For rural teachers: Woofter, Teaching in Rural School; Huyke, 
Nios y Escuelas. For urban teachers: Kendall and Mirick, How 
to Teach the Fundamental Subjects; Freeland, Modern Elementary 
School Practice. Many teachers subscribe to leading magazines such 
as: Normal Instructor and Primary Plans; Primary Education; 
The Elementary School Journal. <A certificate was issued to every 
teacher who successfully completed one of the prescribed courses.’’49 


45Pyerto Rico, Board of Education; Teachers’ Bulletin No. 1. San Juan, 1899. 

“Tbid., No. 2. San Juan, 1899. 

“Thid., No. 3. San Juan 1899. 

TGS Manual for the Public Schools of Porto Rico, Silver Burdette & Co., 1900, 
preface. 

“°Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1920, p. 430. 


160 Education in Porto Rico 


The Porto Rico School Review. The Porto Rico School Review, a 
monthly publication in Spanish and in English, published by the 
Department of Education and the Porto Rico Teachers’ Association, 
keeps the teachers informed on general educational progress and on 
educational problems in Porto Rico. This publication goes to almost 
all the teachers ten times a year to furnish material for thought and 
professional growth, with editorial articles and discussions on such 
topics as the following: Opportunities for the Average Pupil; A 
Suggestion for a New Rural School System; The Spelling of English 
by Porto Rican Pupils; First Steps in Supervision; Exercises to 
Measure the Progress of the Pupils; Oral English; Moral and Civic 
Education; The Junior High School; Post War Notes of War Work; 
Does it Pay to Remain in School? Extracts from Resolutions of the 
Nea Weta se 

Commissioner Miller, addressing the teachers, speaks of The Review 
in the following terms: ‘That the Porto Rico School Review, the official 
organ of the Department of Education of Porto Rico and the Teachers 
Association, has continued to be of service to the teachers is evident. 
The subscription list includes the names of most of the teachers, but 
each and all should feel that it is a duty and a privilege to contribute 
to the financial support of this publication. This magazine serves as 
a valuable medium through which to bring to the attention of people 
outside of Porto Rico what we are doing and trying to do in educa- 
tion, as well as a genuine aid to our own professional advance and 
progress. ..It reaches most of the prominent school men of the 
United States and of the Spanish-American countries and most of the 
educational publications are on the exchange list.’’! 

Teachers’ Association of Porto Rico. No less important in the 
training and improvement of teachers and in the general improve- 
ment of the teaching profession is the work of the Teachers’ Associa- 
tion of Porto Rico. This body meets once a year in assembly, when 
for several days general educational problems as well as local are 
discussed, inspiring addresses by men and women in and outside of the 
teaching profession are listened to, and measures are adopted and put 
into execution through its different committees to raise the geaeral 
level of the teaching profession. Perhaps the most helpful meeting 
in the history of the association was that held in San Juan, December 
26-29, 1919. The Commissioner of Education called a meeting a 


60Taken from the contents of several issues of the Porto Rico School Review. 
Taken from the Porto Rico School Review, April 1919, p. 52. 


The Teaching Profession 161 


the supervisors of schools and municipal commissioners to be held at 
the same time. Arrangements were made for both joint and sectional 
meetings. It was the first time that representatives of the teaching 
profession had come together with the supervisory staff as well as the 
local administrative officials who represent the people. 

The conference did much toward promoting good will, mutual 
understanding and a new viewpoint on educational problems, which 
were considered from the standpoint of the entities represented 
rather than from that of one only. The following topics indicate 
the character of the subjects discussed: Improving the Material 
Conditions of the Schools; What Constitutes a Well Equipped Rural 
School; Better Health for the Pupils; The School and _ the 
Community; Better School Attendance; How can the Work of the 
Rural Schools be Improved in Spite of. Present Obstacles; Making 
Education Practical; The Professional Status of the Teacher; Moral 
Problems of the School; Present-Day Educational Tendencies; 
Aims and Activities of the Junior Red Cross; A Proposed Reorgani- 
zation of the School on the 6-3-3 Plan; Physical Education; The 
Insular Interscholastic Athletic Meet.” 

This wide range of subjects shows the broad interests of the Asso- 
ciation and the fact that the meetings of the Association are not de- 
voted entirely to the economic interests of the teachers, a subject 
which prevails often in meetings of teachers’ associations. 

Study and Travel Abroad. Study and travel outside of the Island, 
generally in the United States, have contributed to the general 
training of the teachers as well as to their improvement in service. 
Many young men and women have received their entire training in 
the United States and have returned to teach in the public schools, 
while others have studied and travelled during their vacation. 
Excursions of teachers have been conducted. Perhaps the most 
popular of these which deserves mention was the trip of the Porto 
Rican teachers to the United States in 1904. Commissioner Lindsay 
made arrangements with the presidents of Harvard and Cornell 
Universities to have about five hundred teachers study in their uni- 
versities during a summer school of six weeks. He also made arrange- 
ments with the War Department to have them transported to the 
United States at a charge of a dollar a day while on the government 
transport. 

The teachers left Porto Rico in two transports June 26, 1904. 


Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1920, p. 429. 


162 Education in Porto Rico 


One transport proceeded direct to Boston while the other went 
direct to New York. On their arrival they were received very 
cordially by the officials of the cities and by the presidents of the 
universities. The universities left nothing to be desired in their 
efforts to serve the teachers. After six weeks of residence work, on 
August 9 they left for Philadelphia and from there went on to Wash- 
ington. The visit to the national capital was so interesting to the 
teachers that a quotation on the experiences of that visit is fitting. 

The Commissioner in his report to the Governor said in part, 
“Upon their arrival in Philadelphia they were taken to Washington 
where they spent a most enjoyable day in visiting the Capitol and 
the Congressional Library. They were appropriately entertained 
at luncheon at the Arlington Hotel through the generosity of a repre- 
sentative committee of citizens headed by Hon. H. B. F. Macfarland, 
one of the commissioners of the District, and Dr. Roland P. Falkner, 
at that time already appointed as my successor in Porto Rico, to 
take office on October 1, and by prominent representatives of the 
Trades League and of the Business Men’s Association of Washington. 
After luncheon and a brief period of speech making, the entire party 
were received at the White House by President Roosevelt. The 
cordiality of his reception made a deep impression, as likewise did 
his earnest words when he addressed the teachers in a body, as follows: 

‘I wish to greet you with all my heart at the national capital. 
It is my earnest wish, as it was the wish of my lamented predecessor, 
and it is the wish of the people of the United States, that only un- 
mixed good shall come to the people of Porto Rico because of their 
connection with this country. I greet you with peculiar pleasure 
and interest, because this body and those who, like you, are engaged 
in the work of education in Porto Rico, are doing that work which 
more than any other is vital to the future of the island. We must 
have education in its broadest, deepest sense—education of the heart 
and soul, as well as of the mind—in order to fit any people to do its 
duty among the free peoples of progress in the world. And I trust 
that vou here, you teachers, you men and women, engaged in pre- 
paring the next generation to do its work, realize fully the weight of 
responsibility resting upon you. Accordingly as you here in this 
room and your colleagues do your work well or ill depend as to how 
the next generation of Porto Ricans shall do their work in the world. 
I am glad to see you because of the very fact that there is this re- 
sponsibility upon you. Nothing in the world comes to people who 


The Teaching Profession 163 


will not work. Nothing worth the having comes to those who do 
not or are not willing to make an effort to get it; and I hail you here 
because you represent that great body of your fellows in Porto Rico 
who are making every effort to fit themselves physically, mentally 
and morally to do the best work of which they are capable in the 
world. I greet you and welcome you here.’ ’’® 

It should not be forgotten that besides the contributions of the 
teachers themselves toward defraying the expenses of the tour, which 
amounted to $21,175.57, the city of Boston contributed $9197, New 
York $2500, and Philadelphia $1032. The reception and courtesies 
extended to the teachers by the universities, the press and the people 
of the United States, should be held in grateful remembrance by all 
people of Porto Rico and especially by the teachers of the Island.* 

Teachers’ Examinations. Although the normal college with a 
regular four-year professional course grew from the little normal 
school in Fajardo and has done splendid service in the preparation of 
teachers, yet it has not been the chief source of supply of teachers for 
the public schools. By far the greatest number of teachers have 
entered the service by taking special teachers’ examinations. In 
1919 there were in force 4343 licenses of all grades. As these 
licenses have to be renewed from time to time some people leave the 
profession and renew their licenses later, but this makes a small 
fraction of the total. Up to 1919, the normal school had issued the 
following certificates: 


Elementary Normal Certificates....................-+2--. 966 
Ruraly Teachers) Certificatesss easement cuaco aroma tees stan kee 
Normal School Diplomas (200.2) wise tele ee Va ee kide awe ho ee 

otal shea sen ans UN eee eeotnir Eafe: 


In other words the normal school had prepared 1465 teachers of all 
those who have served during the last twenty years. How then, 
have the schools been provided with teachers? The public schools 
have depended for teachers on special examinations. Every year 
teachers’ examinations are held, and from this source have come the 
majority of the teachers. Many of these were only eighth-grade 
graduates who passed the rural teachers’ examinations and secured 
the graded teachers’ certificates; while many graded teachers be- 


83Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1904, pp. 20-21. 
For a fuller account see Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1904, Contents. 
Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 558. 


164 Education in Porto Rico 


came principals in the same way. These teachers have either studied 
by themselves, or in private schools, or have attended the summer 
session for teachers at the University of Porto Rico and have taken 
the examinations for the different certificates. 

A review of the 4343 licenses in force in 1919 shows just how far the 
school system has depended on examinations to secure teachers, and 
it will also give an idea of the present academic and professional 
preparation of teachers. 


Degrees from college or university... .........0 0c cece ee eee 100 
Normal school diplomas, full course................2+-0-5 _ 384 
Two years normal training................. a ale te a eee 843 
One ‘year normal training ii) hos dae Ue ie a ce ee 231 
Upon basis of training... .. RASA Cir Minar plg ail Mey U4 i 69 
High school or academy iealaine siete Feiler NG hats eae Con Ma (tate a Ea 39 
Briexarpination iiiinc ys sauces mines scaler ame etn aMea eRe 2677 
Eotalen ie. SUA SMU GM DIRE REE Leer w Lay cla eet Yew AN 43.4356 


During the scholastic year 1919-1920 the Department of Education 
issued 873 teachers licenses’ of all kinds as follows: 
Principals’ licenses on basis of degree of B.A. in Education from the 


University of ‘Porta: Rico, 1920 ee eo tae Se LER Oa ae vee 2 
English graded licenses on basis of four years normal course in the 
Universityof ‘Porto Rico 1920 vic te ialeiieom nie ae aii aie altar 60 
English graded licenses on basis of examinations, March 1920...... 167 227 
Rural certificates on basis of rural course at the University of Porto 
Rico, Feb FOeO ay i fee seem tune arale o has thie teneanit ele ence Tear ate tates 11 
Rural certificates on basis of rural course at the University of Porto 
Ried, Pune LOR ea ake eid aA a es rc Me Se anata BPEL PNAC 197 
Rural certificates on basis of course in high schools, June 1920.... 57 265 
Certificates issued to teachers of English 
On basis of a degree from college or university.............. 18 
VE OTS OWE PORTS OTM LP AIMIN EE ie rE l aly ated aes 54 
“““«“* “high school or academy diploma or previous license 38 
PRR MEMIRERY cee tb Tob asc BAUD NMI) ih EMV) CINE ERT Meena ul A CMSA) 6 116 
High school and special teacher: 
Upon basis of a degree from college or university ............ 51 
roe ty SOUP-Veurs DOrMIAl MrainiNgs)., o. <1 ws ose 63 
he * twoeyears normal (training... 40h). 60 i ee 14 
UAL ae qt SPCCaL trainings we iisounn i eau eng eier te Meee 135 263 
otal) ue Us I Cia Me ey Sia ae arta ee 873°" 


Besides the above, because of the shortage of teachers of legal quali- 
fications willing to accept positions at salaries available, the Com- 


Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 559. s7Jbid., 1920, p. 431. 


The Teaching Profession 165 


missioner of Education issued during the year provisional non- 
renewable licenses as follows: 


‘Lo teachers of) Minglish you ie ile laura) GUI Mi Ct aa 4 

Hor English’ graded: positians wits cas vie eee ae ule ieee ten 130 

For rural’ school positions yi ia), co eve Ma aL ie laa EGG 
Totaly ca sees NS O18 Sait SOURS 


Although there is a good university offering courses for the prepara- 
tion of teachers, yet professional training for teachers in Porto Rico 
has just begun. The majority of the teachers have not been trained 
in the University, but while in service; while many teachers, especially 
in the rural schools, have had no training at all and have received 
provisional licenses from the Department due to the shortage of 
teachers and in order to keep the schools open. 


C. CLASSIFICATION AND PROMOTION OF TEACHERS 


Classification. ‘The teachers of Porto Rico have been classified 
from time to time, that classification being based generally upon 
academic and professional training and teaching experience. The 
first school law under the government of the United States classified 
the teachers into university teachers, secondary school teachers, 
English supervisors, principals of graded schools, graded school 
teachers, and rural school teachers.*? 

When it comes to the classification of teachers, the next school law 
of Porto Rico deals only with the classification of existing teachers at 
the time, who were the teachers of the common elementary schools. 
They were classified thus: “The teachers of Porto Rico shall be 
designated as rural teachers, graded teachers, teachers of English 
and principal teachers.”®® Rural teachers were those teaching in 
rural schools, mostly ungraded; graded teachers were those teaching 
in any graded schools; English teachers were generally American 
teachers who devoted all their time to the teaching of English both to 
teachers and pupils. Principal teachers were those directing graded 
schools. 

As the school system developed the classification was slightly 
changed. By 1903, the teachers were classified into “Rural and 
graded teachers, teachers of English, principal teachers and special 
teachers, the latter class comprising kindergarten teachers, music and 


88Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1920, p. 416. 

59The School Laws of the Island of Porto Rico. Enacted by Order of Gen. Guy V. 
Henry, San Juan, May 1, 1899. Order V, Sec. 1 to 6. 

80The School Laws of Porto Rico. Issued by the Dept. of Education April 9, 1901, 
Sec. 14. 


166 Education in Porto Rico 


drawing teachers, teachers of sloyd, teachers of trades and special 
subjects in industrial schools, teachers in the normal and high schools 
and special school teachers, as teachers of stenography and type- 
writing and all other teachers not otherwise classified, who may at 
any time be employed in school work under the direction of the Com- 
missioner of Education.’ 

Spanish and English Graded Teachers. The development of the 
school system and the increasing use of English as the medium of 
instruction, changed somewhat the classification of graded teachers. 
They became further classified into Spanish graded teachers and 
English graded teachers. ‘The former class decreased more and more 
until the school year 1913-1914 when no Spanish graded schools 
were allotted.” The Spanish graded teachers left have become the 
Spanish teachers of to-day, devoting most of their time to the teach- 
ing of the Spanish language. The English graded teachers have 
become regular teachers in the urban graded schools, teaching in 
both languages according to the grade they are assigned to. 

As these teachers became prepared to teach in English and to 
teach the English language, the function of the teachers of English as 
a teacher of a special subject decreased, and they were placed in 
charge of regular grades. Thus today there is no appreciable differ- 
ence between the English graded teachers and the teachers of English. 

Preparatory Teachers. The same classification has continued since 
then with few exceptions. In 1906, the effort to extend considerably 
the school system met with difficulty in the inadequate supply of 
duly certified teachers. To remedy this the legislature established 
the rank of preparatory teachers, authorizing the Commissioner to 
issue to not more than one hundred young men and women, who were 
desirous of becoming regular teachers in the public schools, special 
licenses valid for the school year as preparatory teachers, entitling 
the holders to teach in the rural schools.® 

Teachers of Agriculture. Previous to the year 1909-1910, agricultur- 
al rural schools were maintained in several municipalities. The 
teacher taught all the subjects of the curriculum for the first, second, 
and third grades, devoting one or more periods a day to elementary 
agriculture. ‘These schools were not a success, due chiefly to the 
youth of the children. During that year a plan was formulated by 


“Compiled School Laws of Porto Rico, 1903, Sec. 35. 
®?Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1913, p. 334. 
Hickle, Cary, (Compiler), The School Laws of Porto Rico, 1914 (109). 


The Teaching Profession 167 


which the teacher of agriculture gave forty-five minute classes daily 
to all pupils enrolled in the graded system of the town to which he was 
assigned from the third grade up and aside from this two hours or 
more weekly for actual field work.“ Thus developed the classification 
of ‘“Teacher of Agriculture.” 

Promotions. Provision for promotion from one class to another 
was made as follows: 

Teachers whether rural, graded or principal, who received their licenses to teach 
under the department of education after the passage of this act, shall be placed in the 
third class and may not be advanced to the second class until after they have taught 
three years in the public schools of Porto Rico. Said teachers shall not be advanced 
to the first class from the second without having taught five years in the public 
schools of Porto Rico. No period of teaching in the public schools of Porto Rico, 
prior to July 1, 1903, shall be counted in calculating the length of service; provided, 
however, that all persons who held a diploma or special certificate from the insular 
normal school indicating that they have passed successfully at least one year of the 
regular course of study in the normal school (not including the preparatory year), 
by reason of the superior advantages which they have enjoyed, shall be admitted, 
when given a license to teach by the department of education, to the second salaried 
class, immediately upon beginning their work in the public schools, and provided 
that all rural, graded, and principal teachers in actual service during the school year 
1902-1903 who may be given a license to teach for the school year 1903-1904 shall 
be assigned to the second class of their respective grades.© 
This provision was amended March 9, 1905 and March 13, 1913, 

requiring third class teachers to teach three years in their respective 
classes before they are promoted to the second class, and providing 
that “‘no teacher shall be advanced to the first-class salary from the 
second, unless they have taught in all five years of their respective 
classes or higher classes of licenses in the public schools of Porto 
Rico and unless they shall be the possessors of life certificates.’’® 


D. TRrACHERS’ SALARIES 


Salaries of Teachers in Common Schools. Considering the educa- 
tional advance made in Porto Rico during the last two decades, 
teachers’ salaries have not increased in proportion. The first school 
law provided the following salaries for teachers in the common 
schools:—Graded school teachers teaching in a school of four grades 
and upwards, in towns of more than 5,000 inhabitants received 
fifty dollars per month. Graded school teachers, teaching in schools 


64Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1910, p. 11. 

65School Laws of Porto Rico, 1902, Sec. 47 

6 The School Laws of Porto Rico, July 1907 (79). The School Laws of Porto Rico, 
1914 (127). 


168. Education in Porto Rico 


of two grades and upward, in towns of 5,000 inhabitants or less, 
received forty dollars per month. Teachers in country schools 
(rural and auxiliary schools) received thirty dollars per month.” 

By the next legislation the following provision was made regarding 
teachers salaries: 
The salaries of all teachers shall be fixed by the Commissioner of Education, 
provided that teachers performing similar service shall receive the same salary, and 
provided further that the salary of any teacher may be increased by the local school 
board above the sum set by the Commissioner of Education, in which case such in- 
crease shall be subject to the approval of the Commissioner of Education, and shall 
be paid from the “school fund” herein provided and not from the department of 
education.® 
The minimum salary of rural teachers was fixed at $30.00 per school 
month, of graded teachers and teachers of English at $40.00 per school 
month, and of principal teachers, at $60.00 per school month.* 
Besides their salaries the local school boards provided the teachers 
with house rent.’° 

In 1903, a few changes were made in the salaries of teachers. 
For the purpose of compensation and payment, teachers were assigned 
by the Commissioner of Education to one of three salaried classes. 
Rural teachers of the first class received $35.00 per school month; 
of the second class, $30.00 per school month; and of the third class, 
$25.00 per school month, as a minimum salary. Graded teachers of 
the first class received $55.00 per month; of the second class, $50.00 
per month; and of the third class $45.00 per month, as a minimum 
salary. Principal teachers of the first class received $80.00 per month; 
of the second class $75.00 per month; and of the third class $70.00 
per month, as a minimum salary. The salaries of teachers of English 
were fixed at $40.00 as a minimum and $60.00 as a maximum. 

Teachers of English and principal teachers from the United States 
were allowed not more than $100.00 for traveling expenses to and 
from the Island. The salaries of special teachers were fixed by the 
Commissioner of Education with the consent of the Executive Council. 
The salary of any teacher could be increased by the school board of 
any district above the sum fixed by the Commissioner, provided the 
increase was made for a definite period and was approved by the 


Commissioner of Education, and provided further that it was paid 


8’School Laws of the Island of Porto Rico May 1, 1899. An order determining the 
salaries and payments of teachers, 2, 3, 4. 

68The School Laws of Porto Rico, 1901, Sec. 15. 

69Tbid., Secs. 16, 17, 18, 19. Ibid., Sec. 22. 


The Teaching Profession 169 


from the school fund of the local boards. The municipal school 
board provided residences or house rent for the offices of the school 
board, and district school superintendents and for all teachers.7! 

In 1907, school boards were relieved of the obligation of paying 
rent to teachers of English, agriculture and other special teachers 
in whose appointment they had no voice.” The salaries of rural 
teachers were raised to $40.00, $35.00 and $30.00, first, second, and 
third classes respectively. All other salaries remained the same.” 
Teachers were certified to teach in English, thus became English 
graded teachers, as differentiated from Spanish graded teachers; 
they received $5.00 a month additional salary from the regular mini- 
mum fixed by law for the graded teachers. 

The salaries of teachers continued static until 1913, when through 
legislation enacted at the Session of the legislature, school boards 
were exempted from the payment of house rent to teachers, and a 
new salary schedule was fixed. The salaries of rural teachers were 
raised to $50.00, $45.00 and $40.00, first, second, and third classes 
respectively; those of graded teachers to $70.00, $65.00 and $60.00, 
first, second and third classes respectively; those of principal teachers 
to $90.00, $85.00 and $80.00, first, second and third classes respective- 
ly, and those of teachers of English to $90.00, $85.00 and $80.00, 
first, second, and third classes respectively.” 

The same law made provisions for special remuneration of public 
school teachers who taught in night schools, as follows: 


Persons holding licenses as teachers of English, special teachers, principal or 
English graded teachers, and graded teachers employed in the night schools shall 
receive a salary of $15.00 per each school month of active service in addition to their 
regular salaries. Persons holding licenses as rural teachers employed in the night 
schools shall receive a salary of $10.00 for each school month of active service in 
addition to their regular salaries. Persons holding licenses of special teachers and 
employed in industrial night schools shall receive a salary of $20.00 for each school 
month of active service in addition to their regular salaries.” 


During the academic year 1913-1914 there was an average of 
2,431 day and 527 night common school teachers working each month 
for nine months, at an average salary of $58.91, in contrast with an 
average of 1855 day and 276 night school teachers, at an average 
salary of $54.72 for 1912-1913. But the scholastic year 1913-1914 


Compiled School Laws of Porto Rico, 1903, Secs. 43-49 inclusive and 58-59. 
72Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1907, pp. 379-380. 

73 The School Laws of Porto Rico, July 1907, Secs. 76-81. 

4 Ibid.‘(124), (125), (126) and (128). 

%Ibhid., 1914, 129. 


170 Education in Porto Rico 


was known as “the year of the big budget,” having been an increase 
of $989,260 over the budget of the previous year. The legislature 
could not keep up the increase in the budget for the department of 
education, nor even come up to it, and the appropriation for 1914— 
1915 fell $657,255 below that of the previous year. As a result the 
teachers suffered. ‘The necessity for economy forced a considerable 
reduction in expenditures during the year. Salaries were reduced 
quite generally and a few positions eliminated entirely. A total of 
325 teaching positions, and the supervisors of manual training and 
music, were included in the reduction. 

Still the crisis continued and the budget for 1915-1916 shows a 
decrease of $78,823 from that of the previous year, with a reduction 
of 20 teaching positions, the supervisor of playgrounds and athletics, 
further reduction in administration and schools supplies and a ruling 
from the department of education that after July 1, 1915, the pupils 
of all high and continuation schools should provide their own text 
books and supplies.”* An examination of Table I in Appendix VII 
will show that the budget for educational expenditures by the insular 
government after 1914, did not equal that year’s budget, until 1919- 
1920 when there was a considerable increase. 

As a result of the above, the average salaries for the teachers in 
the common schools after the ‘“‘year of the big budget” were:” 

1914-1915 an average of 2330 teachers at average flit salary oo $49.23 


1915-1916 an MLN Sa fee) i MAS a me 48.76 
1916-1917 an Tian wehhS yi ie He “49.49 
1917-1918 an ““ @484 rH i ti 1 Sh aah ae acd 
1918-1919 an es seb af Ge)5 7 + KS aI ae Lee 
1919-1920 an “3030 Avaiye : a * “61.09 


Under such circumstances the question of increase in teachers 
salaries did not come up again until the session of the legislature in 
1918, when an act was passed extending the school year to ten 
months divided into two semesters of five months each and fixing 
the minimum salary of graded teachers at $60.00 and of rural teachers 
at $40.00.78 The question of low salaries was partly relieved by the 
legislature in 1919 when the educational budget for the ensuing 
biennium was fixed at $2,362,653.25 per year, the largest in the history 
of Porto Rico. This figure represents an increase of $644,693.25 
or 37.3 per cent over the budget for the previous year, and does 
Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1916, pp. 345-346. 


“Taken from the Reports of the Governor of Porto Rico for the respective years. 
78Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1918, p. 525. 


The Teaching Profession 174 


not include appropriations made for the support of the University 
or for the erection and repair of buildings. The increase is largely 
accounted for by an increase in teachers salaries. Rural teachers 
received a minimum salary of $540; graded teachers $720; principals 
and teachers of English $900 per annum.’® 

Salaries of Special Teachers. The school laws of Porto Rico 
provide that “Salaries of special teachers shall be fixed by the Com- 
missioner of Education by and with the consent of the Executive 
Council in the absence of specific provisions of law fixing the salaries 
of said special teachers.”’ Accordingly, the Commissioner has fixed 
the salaries of special teachers and other teaching positions that have 
developed in the absence of specific provision by law. Such being 
the case there has not been a definite scale of salaries for special 
teachers, the Commissioner having full power to name the salary 
for each individual teacher. However, as a general rule the salaries 
of continuation and teachers of special subjects have generally been 
the same or very nearly the same as those of the principals of graded 
schools. Those of high school teachers vary so much that only the 
minimum salaries will be cited in this study. 

For the last ten years, during which time secondary education 
has developed, the following have been the minimum and maxi- 
mum salaries paid :°° 


Year Minimum Maximum 
LOOGS LOLO ee ea a ee ME LOO teeta ght uty ual aa iy eee ee $1500 
FOLOS EO Te ee ce ia en ea ee et ae ROU eae Sr RU ee IER RAN Gt Lh mneat OL arm, Vinaite 1500 
LOTT EOL See i il hee oe 1d ee ie ASS OTANI OSE AT pve dete a ACHES Baty pa 1500: 
DEEPEN OD Fe pared he eon eT EDN ele aes NB Boker Saks eer Ws | RAY UN da TUE Mae AIR ee AN Te 1500 
0 1 ONS a ee aah Ces cea ee LSS | Ona inde geay metre A Jie ORIN ee Tae eg Bris 1800 
Oa 1 Es eee eid toes caer ea abi tetate Cttre gad DOAMI ANE Acan Nava Nye an haiud | Jaro hy beeen 1600 
TOV TO LG i ee caries oes kate eNO O CO MN a VEN USO ION Wictnta se mtn Cac cTe ae OnE 1600 
EES hy eR DRG eB ce eke iat Ete eat SU (Ys he AU Wee. EN Titec AN orton LAME DORE MONE 1800 
TOPS TOLS ee cs aiiccs deeacmclls Suatalereaeteterey.s GOO Pach enw celles wat cobb cies lye h Che Tea OU 
VOIGHT S19, conte te es ete acne at a OO zee ae See unease CS ele ROO eae See LOCC 
TOTO ATO LO eee tks eiatecs ks OOS LCi kU ch rah tue gfe pated dane eours 


Teachers Leaving the Service Because of Low Salaries. By far 
the largest amount of the expenditure has been spent on teachers’ 
salaries, and of these the largest amount has been spent on the salaries 
of elementary school teachers. Table II of Appendix VII shows a 
comparative study of expenditures since 1899. The most part of 


79Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 581. _ 
80Taken from the Reports of the Governor of Porto Rico for the respective years. 
81Ten months in the school year. 


172 Education in Porto Rico 


the school expenditures has gone to pay the salaries of teachers. 
Yet, as a general rule the salaries of the teaching staff are low, thus 
making it difficult for the department of education to retain the best 
teachers. This state of affairs has caused the department and the 
municipalities much concern. 

Although there were in 1919, 4343 licensed teachers, and only 
2908 positions to be filled, yet the department could not find the 
teachers needed. Many teachers are leaving the service for many 
reasons, but principally because of the low salaries paid. The teachers 
can successfully compete with other persons in other occupations that 
are more lucrative. Many young people choose the profession as a 
stepping stone to something else and after teaching two or three 
years go on with their studies in preparation for law, medicine, 
engineering, pharmacy and the other professions. Naturally most of 
the teachers who leave the service for such reasons are young, the 
most promising, the most ambitious and the best teachers. Com- 
missioner Roland P. Falkner, speaking of the teachers who were 
leaving the profession, says: ““These constitute a distinct loss to the 
school as they come from the most intelligent and progressive class 
of teachers and will probably not take up school work again.’’® 

The last Commissioner, Dr. Paul G. Miller, has the following to 
say on the subject: “Some have entered other professions. Many 
have gone into the government service in other departments. Not 
a few have entered the Federal Government service, while many 
others occupy business positions. One supervisor reports that 
nearly all teachers in his district are studying shorthand with a view 
of securing more remunerative employment...Recently a new 
tendency has developed. Teachers are not only turning longing 
eyes toward opportunities in the United States but a considerable 
number have actually gone there. Their ambition to improve their 
professional status and material welfare on the continent is highly 
commendable though it is detrimental to the educational interests of 
Porto Rico. Many of these young men and women accept business 
employment in the States, but not a few secure positions as teachers of 
Spanish.’’® 

During the school year 1918-1919 the department was compelled 
to give licenses to 898 new teachers in order to be able to keep the 
schools open. Many of these were only eighth grade graduates, 


Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1907, p. 419. 
%Jbid., 1919, p. 558. 


The Teaching Profession 173 


others had one year of high school, while others had two years. As 
a result, the most competent teachers are leaving the service, while 
others stay in because they cannot earn a living at anything else. 
This does not mean that all the teachers of Porto Rico to-day belong 
to this class, but any one familiar with the facts knows that there are 
many of that kind, and that many are anxious to get some other kind 
of employment and will do so at their first opportunity. 


E. Soctat Status oF THE TEACHERS 


With the extension of the public school system and the larger 
opportunity for more children to go to school, education has ceased 
to be the privilege of the few, and is becoming more and more the 
privilege of the masses. Thousands of children who in Spanish days 
would never have gone to school because of their poverty, and lack of 
schools to go to, to-day can not only secure a good common school 
education but if they show ability can aspire to the learned 
professions. This has brought education within the reach of all 
levels of society. 

In Spanish days the recruits for the teaching profession came 
mostly from the privileged few, to-day they come from all levels of 
society. As was natural the privileged few constituted what was 
called the first social class, distinguished for its economic position as 
well as for its intellectual, social, and cultural status. From such 
class, the teaching profession secured its recruits. To-day the re- 
cruits come from all social classes, white and colored, rich and poor. 
The types of man and woman who entered the teaching profession in 
Spanish days have also had wider opportunities opened to them and 
they do not stop to-day with the teaching profession, but aspire 
to what they call “‘something higher,” to law, medicine, dentistry, 
business and other professions. 

The teachers during the Spanish dominion may be charged with 
ignorance, inefficiency and laziness, but they had no opportunity to 
know any better. However, no one who went to school to them would 
deny the fact that they were men and women of social standing in 
the community, that they were leaders in their communities and in 
the Island, and that they were respected by their pupils and by 
society at large. It meant something to be a teacher then; to-day 
the teacher is often spoken of as a “mere school teacher.’’ Parents 
used to teach their children that the teacher was a second father or a 
second mother and the authority of the teacher was never questioned. 


174 Education in Porto Rico 


To-day a parent would just as soon pick a quarrel with the teacher as 
not, and thinks his child clever if it can make trouble for the teacher. 

Another reason for the low status of the teacher of to-day is the 
fact that in Spanish days teaching was a life work occupation; to-day 
it is not. In the Spanish days the teacher entered the profession 
young and died in it; to-day, as soon as he enters he begins to plan 
for the next step. In the first report on education in Porto Rico, 
the American authorities recognized the fact that teaching was a 
permanent profession. ‘““Teaching here is looked upon as a life 
profession by the larger percentage of those employed in the 
schools.’’* 

At the time of the American occupation most of the teachers were 
above thirty years of age, and many of them old men and women. 
In one district the average age of twenty-five teachers employed was 
thirty-nine years,* while at the present time few of the teachers in 
the service are past middle age and the average is under thirty. 
The fact that teaching is not considered a profession to-day is one of 
the influences of the American system of education, and it is to be 
hoped that as teaching becomes more and more professionalized in 
the United States, its good influences may be transferred to Porto 
Rico. | 

It is also to be hoped that as the requirements for entering the 
teaching profession advance, salaries are increased, and the pension 
fund is well established, the future teachers will enter the profession 
for life, and that teaching will be attractive to the best intellects of 
the Island. 


*56th Congress, 5S. D. 363, p. 56. 
Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, pp. 557-58. 


CHAPTER X 


ELEMENTARY EDUCATION: I. PROBLEMS IN 
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 


Definition. Elementary education in Porto Rico may be defined 
as that instruction commonly given in an eighth grade, American 
public elementary school, whether given in a rural school, graded 
school, agricultural school, industrial school or night school. 

A perusal of the first part of this work will give a clear understanding 
of the organization of education during the Spanish régime. Al- 
though the law provided for such an organization, in practice there 
was none whatever. Each teacher gathered about himself as many 
pupils as he could, held the school in the largest room of his residence, 
adopted whatever text-books he wished, received pupils of all ages. 
and degrees of achievement and divided or graded them as he thought 
best. Each school therefore was different from any other one, so as 
far as organization was concerned there was none. The organization 
in practice could be well described as chaotic. 


A. ORGANIZATION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 


Under the Military Government. The first problem, therefore of 
the American authorities was the reorganization of elementary edu- 
cation. This was not an easy task, for the teachers were not ac- 
customed to work in an orderly, well organized system and it meant 
dictation on the part of the conquerors. After the American occu- 
pation, the schools were allowed to function as they were for one year. 
The first attempt at a reorganization was made by General Guy V. 
Henry, July 1, 1899, when he organized a system of rural and graded 
schools, the pupils being graded so far as possible into six grades, each 
representing one year’s work.! 

Under the Civil Government. This was the official course of study 
until the legislature made provision for its reorganization. In the 
‘The School Laws of the Island of Porto Rico, May 1, 1899, pp. 335-34. The course of 


study isfoundin Teachers’ Manual, Public Schools of Porto Rico,issued by the authority 
of the Insular Board of Education, pp. 524-536. 


(175) 


176 Education in Porto Rico 


meantime the organization of administration was so weak and un- 
certain that the course of study as laid down by the military authori- 
ties was not carried out. There was great confusion and practically 
no system. Elementary education continued chaotic until the es- 
tablishment of the Civil Government. With the centralization of 
administration the task of reorganization of the elementary school 
was made easier. Dr. Brumbaugh reorganized the elementary 
schools modeled after elementary education in the States and adopted 
an eight-year course of study, divided into four primary grades and 
four intermediate grades.?, From this organization as a nucleus there 
developed the eight-year elementary school which has been in opera- 
tion until to-day. 


B, ExtTeNSION AND FINANCE OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 


The purpose of elementary education is, “To provide experience in 
meeting the common needs of all, regardless of sex, vocation or social 
status,’ and the second great problem which the American authorities 
encountered was the extension and financing of elementary education, 
so as to bring the “experience’’ necessary to all within the reach of the 
largest number possible. The school census of 1898 showed that the 
Island had a school population of 322,393 and a total enrollment in 
the public schools of 29,172, or only about nine per cent of the school 
population. To reach this multitude of school children and at the 
same time provide for the increase in population, was a tremendous 
task. Such was the second problem that confronted the school 
authorities in 1898. 

Extension in the First Years. The task of providing school facilities 
to such a number of children was begun. ‘The first two years were a 
period of readjustment, and no great progress was made in the ex- 
tension of the school system. With the establishment of the Civil 
Government the Commissioner of Education began to establish 
schools aiming to reach as many children of school age as possible. 
After he had served one year as Commissioner, Dr. Brumbaugh re- 
ported to the Governor as follows: “It is a matter of great satis- 
faction to be able to record that without delay or friction almost 
50,000 children began to study in a prepared and complete system 


*The course of study may be found in the Report of the Commissioner of Education 
for Porto Rico, 1902, pp. 55-59.. 

*Bonser, Frederick Gordon: The Elementary School Curriculum, p. 61. 

‘Only one report gives this figure. The others give 21,873. 


Problems in Elementary Education 177 


of schools at the opening of the school year, September 30, 1901.’’ 
However, at this time the estimated school population was about 
332,497, and the school attendance only about fifteen per cent of 
that. 

Extension until 1914. The increase of the school enrollment during 
the first few years of American occupation was constant, but the 
problems of finance and adaptation were such that no great progress 
could be made in the extension of the system. With his arrival 
in 1907 as Commissioner of Education, Dr. E. G. Dexter began 
his administration, adopting as the first of his aims, “‘to provide in- 
struction in the branches comprising a common school education to 
all children of school age in the island, this instruction to be both in 
English and in Spanish.’ When he became Commissioner, he 
found an enrollment of 68,828, but according to his own figures only 
44,218 of those attended daily, that is, were in the schools every day 
of the nine school months.’ 

By 1910 the census of the United States gave the population 
of Porto Rico as 1,118,012, of which 390,640 were of school age. Of 
these 121,453 were enrolled in the public schools or over 31 per cent 
of the school age population. Dr. Dexter continued his policy of ex- 
tension and when he resigned in 1912, the public schools had an en- 
rollment of 160,657. The next Commissioner continued the same 
policy until 1914, “the year of the big budget,’’ when the enrollment 
reached as high as 207,101, the largest number of children of school 
age ever enrolled in the public schools in the history of Porto Rico. 
In 1915 the estimated school population was 419,282 so that in 1914 
there were about 50 per cent of the school population enrolled in the 
common schools. The years from 1907 to 1914 can be spoken of as 
the period of school extension. 

It was a period of earnest work on the part of the department of 
education to reach the largest number possible of children of school 

age. Double enrollment was resorted to in order to reach this end 
to the extent that in 1914, the average enrollment per teacher was 
81, and at least one case is on record where 250 pupils were enrolled in 
a singular rural school, taught by a girl eighteen years of age.* It 
can be seen readily that under such conditions school work could not 


’Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1901, p. 75. 
*Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1912, p. 202. 

™Ibid., p. 203. 

8Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 538. 


178 Education in Porto Rico 


be thorough and that the programme of school extension had been 
carried out at the expense of efficiency. 

Extension since 1914: Due to the economic crisis after 1914 
immediate retrenchments were necessary and many teachers of a 
special character were eliminated from the budget. Since that time, 
the department abandoned the policy of striving after numbers and 
placed the emphasis on thorough work and adaptation of the 
system to meet insular needs and solve insular educational problems. 

In 1921 the educational situation was as follows: According to the 
census of 1920 Porto Rico has a population of 1,299,809. The 
number of children of legal school age is 438,747; and the number of 
children of compulsory school age is 209,220. The total enrollment 
in all schools supported by public funds, excluding duplicates, was 
193,369. Of this number 119,947 were enrolled in rural schools; 
62,126 in elementary graded schools; 4,364 in secondary schools; 
565 in collegiate departments of the University of Porto Rico; 1,040 
in the summer session of the University; 2,987 in elementary night 
schools; 158 in night classes for technical instruction; 2,018 in 
special needlework and embroidery classes; 39 in rehabilitation 
service, and 25 in the school for the blind. In addition to persons 
enrolled in publicly supported institutions, 6,818 pupils attended 
private schools. 

The total number of different persons who attended either public 
or private schools at any time during the year was 200,087. The 
total enrollment in public schools was 43.1 per cent of the total popu- 
lation of school age, and 90.3 per cent of the population of compulsory 
school age; but of the 209,787 children of compulsory school age, 
only 138,983 or 66.2 per cent were enrolled.? 

Figures Alone Are Misleading. According to these data 57 per 
cent of the total population of school age is not enrolled in any school 
whatsoever and likewise 33.8 per cent of the children of compulsory 
school age. It looks as if these children have no opportunity what- 
soever to secure an education. This is not true and therefore this 
information is misleading. Officially a child is counted of school 
age as soon as he is five years old, and he remains in the statistics of 
children of school age for thirteen years. During this period the 
majority receive a four year rural school education or an eight 
year elementary school education and still remain for a number of 
years in the statistics as children of school age not attending any 


°The Porto Rico School Review, September 1921, pp. 9-10. 


Problems in Elementary Education 179 


school. Nevertheless they have completed the courses that the 
government is able to offer and are not by any means destitute of an 
opportunity to go to school. The fact remains that Porto Rico is 
not furnishing school facilities for 57 per cent of her school popula- 
tion, and that 33.8 per cent of her children between the ages of 
eight and fourteen years are out of school because she is not furnishing 
sufficient schools to provide for all her children of school age nor of 
compulsory school age. Ever since the establishment of the Ameri- 
can system of schools Porto Rico has had a compulsory school law. 
As it stands to-day the compulsory school age is between eight and 
fourteen years.!° 

No Schools for Half the Population of School Age. ‘There is also a 
child labor law, providing that no child under fourteen years of age 
who has not received a certificate from the department of education to 
the effect that he has finished the work required of the third grade of 
the rural or the eighth grade of the graded schools, according to 
whether he lives in the country or in the town, can be employed in any 
lucrative occupation during the hours public schools are in session. 
Exception is made, however, of those children who reside in a com- 
munity in which there is no school within a reasonable distance where- 
in accommodation can be furnished, and of any orphan child or any 
one who for any reason depends on his or her efforts for support, as 
well as any child whose parents are invalids and depend exclusively 
on the work of the child for their maintenance. These children are 
required to attend a night school provided one is maintained by the 
department of education within one kilometer of their homes." 
Moreover the school age is between five and eighteen years; that is, 
no child five years old or above, or eighteen years of age or below, can 
be denied entrance into the public schools if application is made, 
provided there is room for him in the school. 

Such laws have not been, are not, and can not be enforced until 
the Island provides school facilities for at least all her children of 
school age. Although great progress has been made in the ex- 
tension of the school system since 1898, when only 9 per cent of the 
school population attended school as against 43 per cent to-day; 
and when only 4.7 per cent of the total population was in school 
as against 15.6 per cent to-day; yet the extension of the public school 
system so as to reach the largest number possible of school children is 


Compiled School Laws of Porto Rico, 1914, Sec. 144. 
UJbid., 1914, Secs. 142-153 inclusive. 


180 Education in Porto Rico 


still a great problem confronting the department of education. 
Educational progress has been made in the last two decades, but we 
have just begun to educate the masses of the people. 

Comparison of Expenditures of 1898 with 1919. The problem of 
finance is one that goes hand in hand with that of extension. In 
order to appreciate the effort made to popularize education a com- 
parison should be made of the funds spent in the first year of Ameri- 
can occupation, 1899, and those spent twenty years later, 1919. In 
the former year the expenditures for education were $288,098 
while in 1919 they were $2,467,703.29 or an increase of $2,1'79,705.29. 
A study of Table I'? will reveal the progress that has been made in 
financing education. The aim has been to extend the opportunities 
of an education to as many pupils as possible rather than increase the 
advantages of those already in school, but it can not be denied that 
the advantages of those already in school have also been increased. 

With the increase in appropriation the total cost per pupil has 
actually decreased. While in 1899 the cost of books and supplies 
per pupil enrolled was $1.71, in 1919 it was $5.23. In 1899, the total 
cost per pupil was $9.88, and in 1900 $15.46. That figure was not 
exceeded until 1919 when the total cost per pupil was $15.57. The 
cost per inhabitant has increased. In 1899 it was $.302 and in 
1900, $.391. In 1919 it was $1.94.% 

Expenditure for Elementary Education. 'The most interesting fact 
im the educational progress for the last twenty years is the extension 
of elementary education. The elementary school budget for the 
first year of American occupation ending June 1899 was $274,203. 
The budget increased steadily and twenty years after, June 1919, 
the budget for elementary education was $2,077,903.19 or over 757 
per cent that of 1899. The emphasis placed on elementary education 
is shown also when a comparison is made with the total appropriation 
for education. A comparison of Table II'* shows the large per cent 
of the whole appropriation devoted to elementary education during 
the past two decades. In 1919, 84.5 per cent of all funds invested 
in education went to the elementary schools, while 15.5 per cent 
only to secondary and higher education. 

Sources of Finances for Education. To-day the public school 
system is supported primarily from direct appropriations by the in- 
sular legislature and by local taxes. As it will be seen in Table I 


Appendix VII. 18Table III, Appendix VII. 
“Appendix VII. Appendix VII. 


Problems in Elementary Education 181 


by far the largest amount contributed to education comes from the 
insular treasury. As will also be observed in the same table the 
municipalities through the school board have increased their support. 
from year to year. From time to time there have been other re- 
sources such as $200,000 in 1901, when by act of Congress of March 
24, 1900, that amount of money was transferred to Porto Rico from 
general allotments from revenue collected on importations from the 
Island, such amount to be used for the erection of school buildings. 

On a later date the sum of $137,000 was transferred from the same 
source and to be used for the same purpose. Other sources of revenue 
for educational purposes have been gifts of money or land, or buildings 
or equipment from philanthropic citizens. These, however, have 
never been very large. There is no doubt that more could be done by 
citizens in the way of private contributions to education. Ameri- 
can and Porto Rican citizens are in the list of those who have shown 
their interest by actual contributions to education. Still the greatest 
hindrance to the extension of the school system is a financial one. 
Although the Island is contributing to-day over forty per cent of her 
entire revenue to education, yet school facilities are being furnished 
for only forty-three per cent of the children of school age. How to 
raise the funds to finance a system of education which will furnish 
not only school facilities, but the right kind of education for every 
child, is still a problem to be solved. 


C. Burwprines AND EQUIPMENT 


First Funds for School Buildings. The third problem requiring 
immediate attention was that of equipment. At the end of the 
Spanish sovereignty there was not one public school building erected 
for the purpose. Spain herself had very few public school buildings 
at the time. It was not until 1906 that she began to build modern 
school buildings. Her colonies lacked the same things the mother 
country lacked. The total lack of school buildings was the most con- 
spicuous feature of the schools of the Spanish régime which impressed 
Americans most unfavorably. The public school buildings and ma- 
terial equipment which exist to-day in Porto Rico have been pro- 
vided during the past twenty years. 

The first move toward providing school buildings was taken early 
in November 1900 when the Commissioner of Education laid before 
the President of the United States the immediate need of school 
houses in Porto Rico, and in the month of January following, the 


182 Education in Porto Rico 


President transmitted to the treasurer of Porto Rico the sum of 
$200,000 to be used for school extension.!* This money was part of 
the funds collected by the Federal Government in the form of custom- 
house duties on products from the Island entering the United States. 
To this amount was subsequently added by the Governor of Porto 
Rico from the trust fund placed at his disposal by the President, two 
allotments, one of $15,000 for general school extension and one of 
$35,000 for the erection of an insular normal school.” 

Recognizing the urgent need for the continuation of this work of 
school extension, upon the recommendation of Commissioner Lindsay, 
the Governor and heads of executive departments, in whose hands the 
trust fund allotted by the President had been placed, consented on 
April 30, 1902 to the use of the further sum of $150,000 for school 
buildings.'® 

Other Provisions for School Buildings. The funds provided by the 
Federal Government were exhausted and other means had to be 
devised for providing school buildings. On March 14, 1907 the legis- 
lature passed an act providing, ‘““That the sum of eighty thousand 
dollars is hereby set aside from any money in the Treasury not other- 
wise appropriated as a special trust fund to be called the ‘school 
building fund’ to be expended in accordance with the terms of this 
act without limitation of fiscal year for the construction of school 
buildings. The school building fund shall be subject to increase and 
replenishing by subsequent appropriations from the insular treasury, 
by repayments from the local boards and by the payment of interest 
upon advances as hereinafter provided.’’!® 

Such was the beginning of an Insular policy for the provision 
of school buildings. The above fund was increased by $40,000 on 
March 9, 1908, and by another sum of $40,000 on March 9, 1911.29 
Moreover, by act of March 10, 1908 the legislature started a ‘Rural 
School Building Fund”’ of $40,000 to be expended under the direction 
of the Commissioner of Education as specified by the legislature.” 
Besides these sources the legislature has provided from time to time 
assistance to local boards and in some instances the total amount 


*Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1901, p. 50. 

17Ibid., 1902, p. 12. 18Ibid., 1902, p. 13. 

For rules and regulations regarding the use of funds for school buildings, see 
School Laws of Porto Rico, 1914, Secs. 63-64 inclusive, pp. 20-21. 

20School Laws of Porto Rico, 1914, p. 20. 17bid., 1914, Sec. 68, p. 21. 


Problems in Elementary Education 183 


was furnished from the insular treasury on condition that school 
boards provide suitable sites.” 

Municipal Provision of School Buildings. Still the funds thus 
provided were not sufficient to keep up school building construction 
with the progress of the school system. In order to further assist the 
school. boards in the construction of modern school buildings a law 
was passed February 19, 1913 authorizing them to contract in- 
debtedness, borrow money and issue bonds on their own credit to 
an amount not exceeding one per centum of the aggregate tax valua- 
tion of the property of the municipality in which the school board 
was located for any or all of the following purposes:—““To take up 
or make payments on its floating indebtedness and liabilities; to 
refund any existing bonded indebtedness and to build school buildings 
or make additions or necessary repairs to its property.’ The 
first school board to undertake a building programme to supply the 
needs of the city was that of Ponce. Two loans were contracted by 
the school board, one in 1913 for $140,000 and a second one in 1914 
for $40,000. 

Present Buildings. At the present time the facilities provided are 
not sufficient to accommodate the number of schools allotted.” 
The city of San Juan, although the capital city, has been very slow in 
providing building facilities for all the schools allotted. It was not 
until 1916 that the city undertook a plan to construct buildings 
sufficient in number to provide all the children with proper school 
facilities. A loan of $300,000 was secured to begin this work, and 
additional loans have beensecured. Beautiful, well-built and efficient- 
ly equipped buildings are being constructed in San Juan now. One 
of the last official acts of the Executive Council before the Jones 
Bill went into operation was to set aside a credit balance of $100,000 
to be used as a rural school building fund.> Thus with the co- 
operation of the insular and municipal governments Porto Rico has 
a large number of school buildings of which she can be justly proud. 
The photographs in Appendix VIII show the progress in school 
buildings better than can be expressed in words.” 

The buildings erected to-day show quite a contrast to those of 
the early years of the American occupation. The early buildings 
erected with the money refunded by the Federal Government, 


Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 545. 

°3School Laws of Porto Rico, 1914 Sec. 17, p. 10. 

24 Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 545. 

2Tbid. p. 546, 26 Appendix VIII. 


184 Education in Porto Rico 


homely and deficient as they were, appeared to the people accustomed 
to the schools of the Spanish dominion, as palaces devoted for school 
purposes. It was common to hear the phrase “Un gran colegio” 
(a great college) in reference to the school buildings which were 
being erected. But the buildings of to-day excel in every respect 
those of the early years. They are well equipped with proper pro- 
vision for sanitary toilet facilities and lighting for night classes or 
public meetings held in the evening. Among the best rural school 
buildings being erected to-day are those for the consolidated rural 
schools. The best of these consists of five class rooms, an office for 
the principal, a store room for tools, and facilities for manual training, 
and it has a site of three acres of level ground for carrying on work in 
agriculture.” 

The following tables will show the great advancement made in 
providing school buildings and facilities for the children of Porto 
Rico, but they will show also that this work also has just begun and 
that the majority of the children are still gomg to rented buildings. 


Taste 1. Totat NuMBER or BUILDINGS.”® 


PUBLIC PROPERTY RENTED TOTAL 

Used for urban schools......... 164 204 368 
Used for rural schools......... 405 1130 1535 
Totakwig ces Fee neue ear 569 1334 1903 


TABLE 2. Totat NuMBER oF Rooms 


PUBLIC PROPERTY RENTED TOTAL 

In buildings used for urban schools 964 456 1420 
In buildings used for rural schools. 478 1198 1676 
Patani a eae 1442 1654 3096 


TaBLE 3. PusBiic PRoPERTY.?® 


NUMBER OF BUILDINGS HAVING: URBAN RURAL TOTAL 
1 Room . 26.. Fe ABT i aD 368 
2 Rooms. Lh A A 57 78 
3 Rooms.. Ory ae: y Ate ate 1l 
A ROOMS eA IA A sie ee rie LE SIs eee ea bo Nei ee F Saban gue 33 


27Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 546. 
287bid., 1920, p. 434. 29Tbid., 1920, p. 434. 


Problems in Elementary Education 185 


TABLE 3 (Continued) 


NUMBER OF BUILDINGS HAVING: URBAN RURAL T.T.L. 
ER MEROOLAS Se oe od hthp ach a Mere ee rane ated A Rae Lav Ly Lak ae ER OC A eee SY cue A 
Cia EAHOTELS lteter Shs od) hb Lee SRLS A RN MRT ELDON Se Ae D5 5h ey ee ae Ae BO 
7 Rooms.... 3 —_ 3 
8 Rooms..... 15 Pa TE ae 15 
SPER OTIS 5: sae « bole ES : Dy Maenyied ee Te lyin g 
PA) PEOCHSITUS ai 8! 5h 3 e's os LS idome CUA Cem LEU Ue ella e eiek BE Sine CIO INDY BU — 2 
EEC OOTIUS fate LOS a dank) ee OES eM TE, PAL EPO TY Cd So ATCT MPL, D ELG DIP IN Oa eos SANS 8 Q 
TP RELOOMIS ye ick fe Oto ial UP ted eG ee I EO Os se LOCO Tw aPEUW TA Semsrritt AUP Te OTE SS 
BAP TR ORES 84105555 BAUS CAMA Mie eer ee Sent ee gah ch Lead He — 2g 
DD eROOMS 4. 645.060 : ; ee 1 — 1 
POL ROOMS 6c esas tls ee Re te Cerna MT are An coke ee AD yc ted ne —_ 6 
TSP EROODIS Mac aah cosh os te esly cily Sel RUPE eA ArT TELL eae MAL eFC _ 2 
PO ROOTS Yee ie ae he RGR MRL ay SCE cael Ue UA GPU ie Ata a —- 1 
DU SERGOMIS State aint See ey eRe MT OE SEEN LES Cae Are kA TR AR FURL — hay 4 
ye WT RSES 1S py en RAO CL aL ACE ae VIC cE aN ped aa ee SBE ag ef — 1 
TFotal @onic cena taut (otlg Pirin amen iLe Mie ae areal ao? de 405 569 


School Furniture. Practically no modern equipment existed at 
the time of the American occupation. To-day all publicly owned 
buildings and many of the rented buildings are equipped with modern 
furniture. The antiquated type of long benches and tables can still 
be found in remote rural schools of which there are about four hundred 
without modern equipment. The department has been trying to 
get rid of the old furniture and has insisted that additional schools 
be supplied by the school boards with modern furniture and other 
equipment.*° 

School Supplies. According to law the municipalities provide 
desks, school furniture, bookcases, chairs and desks for teachers, 
clocks, proper receptacles for drinking water, supplies for janitors 
and all other necessary equipment for the school room, except text 
books and such stationery supplies as the department of education 
may furnish.**. The department should furnish school text books 
and supplies, not furnished by the municipalities free of charge to the 
pupils of the public school up to and including the eighth grade, but 
the Commissiover is authorized to sell text books, and pupils of 
continuation and high schools are required to provide their own 
books and supplies.” 


30Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 548. 
31School Laws of Porto Rico, 1914, Sec. 79, p. 23. 
32 Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1920, p. 434. 


186 Education in Porto Rico 


The legislature has not always appropriated sufficient funds to 
enable the Commissioner to comply with the law. Until 1914 the 
appropriation for the text books and supplies, although not large, in 
some measure provided the needs, but since that date the prices of 
text books and supplies have increased and the department has not 
been able to buy the necessary supplies. Added to the increased 
cost, the increase in schools and enrollment has still made it more 
difficult for the department to comply with the law. Since 1917 
no increase was made in the appropriation until 1921-22 when 
the appropriation was increased, while prices and enrollment have 
increased. The result is that many text books are not only in a 
very unhygienic condition, but actually filthy and should be burned.® 
Nevertheless when compared with Spanish times, inadequate as is 
the present appropriation, great progress has been made. 

The following table shows the appropriations made for text- 
books and supplies for the last eleven years: 


LOO OTs rele nlanie a ere tis Some ete eee eee OU 
ES hs Be actin UA at geen Shela edin tin ondals eh i AEE 
POR LORS oie subi ths aahaty plies Wakpue ktm neil Re yO 
POLS LO ae ti Poy shal hoe cop uh Bo Rte ae igi Ernie pea UO 
TOD BOND ilu, gee Selle oki cle ieee eile ipper eta en bye tael TOS NORGE 
LOTS EDL G oa cil tues hese bk ules ll Sa eS OU 
POLO SLO DT ew setts Ga hiaheears eek Crane tae ten be eth, COUR 
BLOTS ile feos i Ae ps BLN Ghee Pence an gu Sg a 
LOLSHESLO ee ee ee etaen rel kh i ert nee a I 
DOO LOS neh, aisle Biol ene an be bukty es MOe ace amean Ra IK 
POZO PTOZ EG iiclsls tiarvisth cote gone Sa ede ai oiere el emm enn beds Ae 
[A Col tdi tare Pe MeN tee SOM CN Ns iden sta ale Tet UE Te 


D. Co-EpucATION 


Still another problem which faced the American educators was the 
problem of co-education. The American people can not appreciate 
this problem as well as a Spaniard or a Latin-American. The 
Americans went to Porto Rico from a country where the boys and 
girls go to school together from the kindergarten to the university, 
where woman enjoys greater freedom than in any other country of 
the world, and where there is no appreciable difference of intellectual, 
social and moral standards between men and women. They went 
into a civilization where it was thought morally wrong for boys and 
girls to go to school together, where woman by tradition was destined 


®Ibid., p. 434. “Ibid., p. 435. 


Problems in Elementary Education 187 


to submit herself to the will of man and where there was avery differ- 
ent and marked contrast between the intellectual, social and moral 
status of men and women. 

Woman was not supposed to be as well educated as man, and 
therefore the government had made very little provision in the cities 
_for her intellectual development, and none in the country districts. 
If she belonged to what was called the first social class, she was given 
an education which aimed more to furnish a certain cultural polish 
than a development of her mental abilities, and her moral purity 
was watched over that not even the interesting glances from the 
opposite sex might contaminate her. 

If she belonged to the middle class she might attend the public 
schools for girls where she learned to do fancy work and sewing or 
study to be a teacher, and make an honest living as best she could, 
always being careful that her relations to the other sex were very - 
carefully supervised. But if she belonged to what is often called 
the lower classes, the peasant class or the colored class, she was not 
supposed to have any education whatsoever. 

To establish an American co-educational system of public educa- 
tion in such a society was to accomplish that which Spain and even 
all Europe had not yet accomplished; it was to step in a day over 
centuries of world traditions, prejudices and customs. 

But the co-educational system was established, it was 
established for the best, and only two decades of its history 
has so raised the intellectual, economic, social and moral status of 
woman that she is becoming more and more the equal of her brother 
economically, while she is every bit his equal intellectually and social- 
ly and at the same time has preserved her moral superiority. 


EK. ADAPTATION 


The greatest problem which confronted the American educators 
when they began to establish a system of public instruction in Porto 
Rico was the adaptation of a standard American common school 
system to a Latin American civilization, mostly of Spanish blood 
and traditions and whose vernacular was Spanish. This task can 
not be appreciated without a careful perusal of the first part of this 
work, where the Spanish system of public instruction is presented, 
and where the author has tried to emphasize the fact that there was 
no ‘‘system”’ at all to the system; that every teacher was a rule unto 
himself or herself and did as he or she pleased irrespective of authority; 


188 Education in Porto Rico 


that there was no school organization of any kind, all the schools 
being ungraded; and that there was no aim whatsoever in education. 
To establish an American system of public instruction, the American 
educational ladder as it is often called, a working system so co- 
ordinated that one step leads to all the others, and on to a definite 
goal, to do that among people of such a culture and psychology as the 
Spanish education produced, is a greater task than most people 
think. 

But this task is made still more difficult when the attitude of the 
people toward manual labor, and when the language problem are 
taken into consideration. No one can appreciate the seriousness of 
these problems, and the difficulties to be encountered, as well as the 
person who has lived among the people and who speaks, thinks and 
feels in both languages. The new generation of Porto Rico, educated 
in the present public schools and a bilingual people, will be able to 
appreciate these problems and look with admiration at the efforts 
put forth to introduce into the curriculum subjects requiring manual 
activity and to establish a bilingual system of education and with 
sympathy for the many mistakes and failures made. 

Traditional Professions of Porto Rico. The traditional professions 
of Porto Rico, as well as of any other Spanish country, were law and 
medicine, with perhaps the priesthood, pharmacy and teaching as 
close seconds. These were pursued generally by young men be- 
longing to the first social class and of some economic means. But 
other people were not barred from the professions and the highest 
aim of many poor boys of good families was to study one of the tra- 
ditional professions. 

Such being the case, manual labor in the trades was left to the 
artisan class, either boys from good families whose parents could not 
afford to give them the advantages of a profession, or colored boys 
who aimed to rise higher than the average member of their class. 
The lowest kind of manual labor, that is, the digging of the ditches 
and the tilling of the soil, was left to the peon class, made up of the 
poor white peasant or the colored man brought up accustomed to 
such work as a slave. 

Importance of Studies Requiring Manual Activity. While sewing 
and embroidery as occupations for women were more or less re- 
spectable due to the fact that they constituted required studies during 
the Spanish régime, cooking and laundering was left to the very 
poor or low socially, and to be called a “‘cocinera’”’ or “‘lavandera”’ 


Problems in Elementary Education 189 


was the greatest insult that could be offered to a woman or a young 
girl. Withsuch occupational distinctions, any work requiring manual 
activity was barred from first-class society of means, as a general 
rule, and it was considered degrading for the sons or daughters of the 
rich even to get their hands dirty in the performance of a manual 
task. Of course there were exceptions, but such was the general 
rule. 

Hence the importance of the studies of manual training, home 
economics and agriculture, not only as a means to bring about better 
home conditions, but also to transform the viewpoint of the people 
on manual labor, to exalt the dignity of labor and to show that in 
these “humble” occupations are hidden possibilities of professions 
as honorable as any of the traditional ones and in most cases more 
remunerative. The introduction of such subjects in the school 
curriculum was not going to be a very easy task, nor was it going to 
be accomplished in a day. Fifteen years of American occupation 
went by, before they could be made an integral part of the school 
curriculum to be required of all pupils. And this is still more sur- 
prising when one thinks of the fact that just such studies have been 
and are one of the greatest needs of the Island, for the one serious 
problem of Porto Rico is to prepare the people to be self-supporting, 
and by self-supporting is not meant the ability to eke out a mere 
existence, but to enable the people to provide for themselves sufficient 
food, clothing and shelter for the enjoyment of a normal life. 

The Language Question. The problem of adaptation found its 
greatest difficulties in relation to the language question. Since there 
seems to be a misunderstanding as to what is the vernacular of the 
people of Porto Rico, since the status of Spanish has been the center 
of much passionate discussion and since on this question of the two 
languages hinges to a great extent the future usefulness of the Island 
of Porto Rico as an American possession, it seems advisable to state 
the problem as fully and clearly as possible. 

The Language of Porto Rico. Dr. Victor S. Clark, President of the 
Insular Board of Education in 1899, in his report on education in 
Porto Rico, under the heading of “Remarks and Recommendations,” 
reported as follows: “In conclusion we would say that careful study 
of the history of the public schools of Porto Rico, as outlined in the 
secretary’s report, will help one much in appreciating the character of 
the problem here. There does not seem to be among the masses 
the same devotion to their native tongue or to any national ideal 


190 Education in Porto Rico 


that animates the Frenchman, for instance, in Canada or the Rhine 
provinces. Another important fact that must not be overlooked is 
that a majority of the people of this island do not speak pure Spanish. 
Their language is a patois almost unintelligible to the natives of 
Barcelona and Madrid. It possesses no literature and little value as 
an intellectual medium. There is a bare possibility that it will be 
nearly as easy to educate these people out of their patois into English 
as it will be to educate them into the elegant tongue of Castile. 
Only from the very small intellectual minority in Porto Rico, trained 
in Europe and imbued with European ideals of education and govern- 
ment, have we to anticipate any active resistance to the introduction 
of the American school system and the English language.’’*> And 
Dr. Brumbaugh, reporting on the language question in 1901, wrote 
as follows: ““The people speak a very imperfect Spanish. The rural 
teachers and many of the graded have the same patois.’ 

Both of these gentlemen were very much mistaken or misinformed, 
but especially Dr. Clark, for any one would agree with Dr. Brum- 
baugh that the Spanish spoken in Porto Rico is not by any means 
perfect. They would challenge himonthe “‘patois” question as applied 
to Porto Rico and not to any nation, as a very small percentage of 
the population of any nation speaks the national language perfectly. 
Dr. Clark is mistaken, to say the least, when he says that there does 
not seem to be among the masses devotion to their native tongue, 
while Dr. Brumbaugh is very much to the point when he says 
“The Spanish language is precious to these people. All their history 
and their traditions and their civilization are bound up with it.’’%” 

Moreover, Dr. Clark was ignorant of the facts when he said that 
the language of the Porto Ricans was a patois almost unintelligible 
to the natives of Barcelona and Madrid; that it possessed no litera- 
ture, and little value as an intellectual medium; and that there was a 
bare possibility to educate the people out of their patois into English 
as it would be to educate them into the elegant tongue of Castile. 

Any one having a fair knowledge of the “elegant tongue of Castile” 
would not make statements as the above. Were a Porto Rican to 
speak his native language in Barcelona, or any place in Catalufia 
and Valencia and not be understood, it would not be the fault of the 
language of the Porto Rican, but it would: be due to the fact that the 


%56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 60. 
36Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1901, p. 65. 
37 Thid. 


Problems in Elementary Education 191 


common language of these two provinces is not Spanish and much 
less pure Castilian. The Barcelonan would not understand the 
Porto Rican, not because the latter could not speak Spanish but 
because the native tongue of Catalufia is Catalan, and the majority 
of the people speak their language in preference to Spanish. The 
same could be said of Valencia and other provinces of Spain, where a 
large part of the country population do not speak Spanish at all. 

The average Porto Ricar speaks Spanish more correctly and pro- 
nounces it more nearly like the Castilian pronunciation than the 
average inhabitant of eastern Spain. Spanish is more the language 
of Porto Rico than of Spain herself for every inhabitant of Porto 
Rico speaks it, while every inhabitant of Spain does not. Dr. 
Clark was also in error when he said that the language of Porto Rico 
possessed no literature. Not only is the whole field of Spanish 
literature open to the Porto Rican, but he has a native insular litera- 
ture of which he is justly proud, and this is written with the orthog- 
raphy of “‘the elegant tongue of Castile.” 

The falsity of the statement that the language of the Porto Rican 
possesses little value as an intellectual medium is so evident that it 
needs no refutation. But Dr. Clark failed absolutely to understand 
the psychology of the people when he stated that there was a bare 
possibility of educating the Porto Rican out of his “patois’”’ into the 
English language. There is as much possibility of educating the 
Porto Rican out of his “‘patois’’ into the English language as there is 
of educating the Frenchman out of his French into German, and vice 
versa; or the American out of his English into the Spanish of Mexico 
or vice versa. 

Spanish is the Vernacular. At the time of the American occupa- 
tion, the Porto Rican problem was compared too often with the 
Philippine problem, when they had very little in common. Porto 
Rico with a homogeneous population, mostly of European descent and 
a common language presented a very different problem from the 
Philippine Islands, with its population mostly of oriental descent and 
its many dialects. 

‘Before Jamestown or Plymouth Rock, Porto Rico was a well- 
developed and socially organized community, speaking the Spanish 
language.” It is true that in 1898 a large majority of the population 
was illiterate and naturally did not speak literary Castilian, but 
these uneducated people did not speak a patois any more than the 
uneducated classes of the United States and England speak an 


192 Education in Porto Rico 


English patois. Their Spanish did not conform with the standards of 
the “Real Academia” any more than the language of any uneducated 
people conforms to the literary standards of their national languages. 
Spanish is the insular language, the vernacular of the people and 
worth conserving. 

Eagerness to Learn English. On the other hand as soon as the 
Island became a possession of the United States and English the 
official language, the people saw immediately the need of learning 
English. Any one who could speak a little of the language became a 
professor and gave lessons to the many men and women who desired 
to study. Many American soldiers became instructors when not on 
duty and would spend much of their time ir private homes giving 
lessons. When English was introduced into the public schools it 
was welcomed by the population as a whole and parents took pride 
in relating how their boys and girls could speak with the Americans 
and act as interpreters. The public school teachers took up English 
and made marvelous progress in the first five years. Bright and 
ambitious boys and girls were given an opportunity to go tothe 
States to school provided they krew enough English. 

Regarding the efforts of individual pupils to qualify for this oppor- 
tunity, Commissioner Lindsay said: 

Some of the efforts of individual pupils are almost pathetic. One boy who is 
studying with the hope that he might be sent to school in the States has to earn his 
living during the day and has only his nights, without the aid of a teacher in which to 
study and acquire a knowledge of English. In writing to the Department for ad- 
vice he wrote in English as follows: ‘It istrue, lamina position with the San Juan 
Light and Transit Company, but I can too little that scarcely it is not sufficient 
for me to address myself. I have prepared myself to can be a teacher the next 
time for being not able to pay one who could give lessons to me. This letter will 
not be correct but it is a sign of my progress in the English language. I wait fora 
satisfactory answer, for I go every time forward and forward. I spend some hours 
at night in studying alone, by that reason all that I study I try to understand it 


well for I have no other man who can explain me that I study at night. That is 
the poor life. At the end of September I will be 16 years old.% 


Attitude in the Island on the Language Question. With the ex- 
ception of a few politicians who have availed themselves of the lan- 
guage question to further their personal, selfish, political ends and 
ambitions, for the last twenty years, no one has failed to see the 
advantage nor questioned the wisdom of learning English, and more 
so since the citizens of Porto Rico were made citizens of the United 


*8Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1902, p. 33. 


Problems in Elementary Education 193 


States. The present attitude of the Island on the language question 
can not be better presented than has been expressed by Mr. José 
Padin, for some time Assistant Commissioner of Education. 

He says: “‘Although this language question has been discussed 
with considerable animosity, the wisdom of teaching English in the 
public schools has never been seriously challenged by the people of 
Porto Rico. They are as keenly alive to their linguistic opportunity 
as the school authorities have ever been. A great many people 
question the advisability of teaching subjects other than the English 
Janguage in English and argue that this tends to retard the progress 
of the pupils and to destroy the purity of the Spanish language— 
the thin, entering wedge which must, eventually, destroy the mother- 
tongue of the people of Porto Rico and, with it, their individuality. 
Personally the author believes that no matter what the ultimate 
status of Porto Rico may be (and he grants that the ultimate status 
of Porto Rico and its language question are intimately related), 
this island will remain an intellectual and spiritual as well as an 
economic dependency of the United States. Our youth will continue 
to go north for advanced academic and technical training. Our 
merchants and professional men will keep in close touch with the 
North American development of business and science. The steamers 
that will continue to ply between our ports and the northern coasts 
will feed the current which has had already a tremendous influence 
on our life. There is not any escape from this transforming influence. 
Our insular life is not self-sufficient. ‘The stimulus and inspiration 
for continuous growth must come from without. They will come from 
the United States. And because North American ideals are destined 
to exercise such a powerful influence on our life, it is desirable that 
we make the closest acquaintance with those ideals. 

“The majority of the people of Porto Rico cannot familiarize them- 
selves with North American ideals at first hand, that is, by actually 
living in the United States; consequently they must do so through 
the next best means: through the English language. A superficial 
knowledge of the English language is not enough. For cultural 
purposes in the ordinary sense, a reading knowledge of a language 
may be sufficient. To catch the spirit that animates the life of a 
people, to know and absorb their ideals, it is indispensable to master 
their language, to possess it wholly. Therefore in attempting to 
give the children of Porto Rico as complete a mastery of the English 
language as it is feasible to give through the medium of a school 


194 Education in Porto Rico 


education, the department has acted with the fullest realization of 
the educational interest of the people.’’*? 

The Language Policy of the Department. From the beginning of 
civil government, the department of education saw what an asset the 
knowledge of Spanish was, and at the same time the necessity, oppor- 
tunity and privilege of learning English. Thus in 1901, Dr. Brum- 
baugh reported to the Governor of Porto Rico as follows: ““The people 
are anxious to have their children acquire the language of the United 
States. They also love their native tongue. . .Teachers from the 
United States must teach these children the language of the United 
States. They must also teach the native teachers how to acquire 
and impart the English language. The native teachers can teach 
the Spanish language and need only for this work, the example and 
direction of trained professional teachers. . .The normal school 
and other agencies must speedily give the teachers of these schools a 
knowledge of the English language, that all the children in the 
schools may have instruction in both languages. . .The Spanish 
language will not and should not disappear from these schools. It 
will be a hindrance, not a help to deprive these people of an oppor- 
tunity to acquire both languages.”?° 

Thus from the beginning the aim of the department has_ been 
to establish and to develop a bilingual system of education which 
would insure the conservation of Spanish and the acquisition of 
English, both to be mastered sufficiently for practical use. This aim 
has been adhered to ever since. In order to carry out this policy, 
different plans have been tried and changed as experience has dictated. 

Text Books. The problem of adaptation gave rise to another 
problem very closely related to the language question. This was 
the problem of text books in the English language and adapted to 
insular conditions. On the arrival of the American school authorities, 
they found such text books as Epitome of Spanish Grammar; Gram- 
mar of the Spanish Royal Academy; pamphlets on the rules of syntax 
and orthography, several catechisms of the church; several books on 
Bible history, mostly in catechism form; a small geography of Porto 
Rico and a general geography of Palucia; a short history of Spain in 
catechism form and several readers such as Juanito and Carrefio. 
Such books could not be used with the establishment of the new 


39Padin, José: The Problem of Teaching English to the People of Porto Rico, Gov’t of 
Porto Rico, Dept. of Education Bulletin, 1916, No. 1, pp. 12-14. 
40Report of the Commissioner of Education, p. 14. 


Problems in Elementary Education 195 


public school system. But there were no others in Spanish, and 
American text books besides being in English were not adapted to 
conditions and school problems of Porto Rico. Thus one of the 
primary difficulties in the conduct of the schools was the absence of 
suitable Spanish text books. 

First Text Books. With the acquisition of the Spanish colonies by 
the United States, one of the first things American publishers did 
was to have standard American text books hastily translated into 
Spanish. For lack of something better many of these were adopted, 
but none of them had been prepared with special view of the needs of 
the Island. Reading, writing, arithmetic and other subjects do not 
vary with degrees of longitude and latitude or variations in tempera- 
ture, but books prepared on such subjects can present an environ- 
ment entirely foreign to the child. 

Such was the case not only in Porto Rico, but in all the Spanish 
possessions transferred to the United States as a result of the war 
with Spain. Readers with stories on sleighing and skating parties 
could not be appreciated by the children as well as if they had treated 
of swimming parties or even picnics where the traditional roasted pig 
was the center of attention; and problems of arithmetic on apples, 
peaches, pears, bushels and what not, could not be appreciated by 
the children as if they had been on bananas, nisperos, aguacates, 
oranges, and fanegas or quintales. In writing it was a very common 
thing to see a child with a copy book copying down English words 
and phrases the meaning of which he did not know from Greek. 
Even these poor supplies were not always available because pub- 
lishers were slow in filling orders.*! 

Steps to Provide Text Books. For a considerable time translations 
and such Spanish books as could be secured were used in the schools. 
As the teachers progressed in the use of English, text books in that 
language were introduced, but no books adapted to Porto Rico 
were produced very soon. The first Porto Rican books were the 
readers prepared by Mr. Manuel Fernandez Juncos, and a History 
of Porto Rico, by Mr. Salvador Brau, published in 1904. “Moral 
Social’? by Eugenio Maria de Hostos was adopted.” In 1905, a 
committee was appointed to select books most adaptable to local 
conditions and so it happened that as books became dilapidated they 
were replaced by the texts recommended by this committee. Special 


41Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1900, p. 21. 
Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 556. 


196 Education in Porto Rico 


copy books were prepared about this time, which in the first four 
grades had an equal division of Spanish and English sentences in 
the exercises to be written by the children.* 

The first attempt to produce English readers adapted to the in- 
sular environment was in 1906 when Miss Grace Mowry, critic 
teacher in the practice school connected with the Insular Normal 
School, prepared the Spanish-American primer, which was followed 
by the Spanish-American First and Second Readers, prepared by 
Mr. Paul G. Miller, then principal of the Normal School. Another 
English text published just before these readers was “‘Facts of Porto 
Rican History for Grammar School Pupils,’ 1905, being a condensed 
text on Porto Rican history by Mr. E. N. Clopper, then principal of 
the Central High School of San Juan.” 

In the meantime, most of the textbooks used were those recom- 
mended by the committee already mentioned and still most of them 
American texts. In 1907, there was introduced for use in the lower 
grades and in the rural schools an arithmetic in the Spanish language, 
but this was also a translation under the supervision of the Depart- 
ment of Education.” The same year, Superintendents Warshaw 
and Conant prepared a manuscript of a geography of Porto Rico which 
was published asa special chapter of Cornman and Gersons Geography 
Primer.*© An act of March 9, 1905 was passed by the legislature pro- 
viding that, ““The department shall procure for the use of the public 
schools in Porto Rico, a reading book which shall contain the best 
passages of local literature in prose or verse, by leading Porto Rican 
writers, with brief biographical notes of each author.’’” 

In accordance with this provision the department made a contract 
with Mr. Manuel Fernandez Juncos for the preparation of a work of 
this nature, and the volume edited by him, “‘Antologia Puertori- 
quefia’’, was adopted for regular use as a reader in the higher grades.*® 

Not very much was done in the production of textbooks until 1915, 
when a new impetus was given to the preparation of books especially 
adapted to the needs, interests, and environment of the Porto Rican 
children as well as to the bilingual system of instruction followed 
in the schools. However, in the meantime, supervisors and teachers 


Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1905, p. 18. 
“Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 556. 
*Report of the Commisssioner of Education, 1906, p. 47. 
“Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1907, p. 418. 
*“‘The School Laws of Porto Rico, 1907, Sec. 107, p. 41. 
‘8Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1907, p. 418. 


Problems in Elementary Education 197 


were busy in the class rooms experimenting in their daily work with 
an end in view of improving instruction, devising methods and 
collecting material specially adapted to the local needs and environ- 
ment. As the important problem was the language question, the 
teaching of Spanish and English received special attention. Several 
people published the results of their class-room work. These were 
discussed in teachers’ meetings and in conferences. 

As a result Mr. José Gonzalez Ginorio prepared and published his 
series of books on the teaching of Spanish, which have been adopted 
by the department of education and are to-day the standard Spanish 
readers in the Jower grades. Other works on the teaching of Spanish 
which have received the attention of the department: “El Buen 
Castellano” by Mr. Manual G. Nin has been tested in some of the 
grades. Also ‘‘Gramatica Castellana” by Mr. Felipe Janer has 
been adopted for work in the eighth and ninth grades.*? For the 
teaching of English Mr. Joseph Morin developed his method and has 
published a series of readers adapted to local conditions, which have 
also been adopted by the department of education. 

Among other text books prepared specially for Porto Rico and 
dealing with insular subject matter primarily is Hygiene Practica, 
by Dr. Bailey K. Ashford, one of the foremost authorities to-day on 
tropical diseases and hygiene. This has been a valuable contri- 
bution and it is used as a text book in the intermediate grades. 
Miss Grace J. Ferguson has prepared a book on Home Making and 
. Home Keeping, which is perhaps the only home economics textbook 
in English dealing with tropical conditions. Miss Laura M. Seale, 
instructor of mathematics in the University of Porto Rico, has 
rendered valuable service in the preparation of a series of texts on 
arithmetic consisting of a Manual of Arithmetic for teachers, to be 
used in the teaching of arithmetic in the first and second grades, 
a Primary Arithmetic for third and fourth grades, and an Inter- 
mediate Arithmetic for the fifth and sixth grades. The subject 
matter is such as is familiar to the children. The system of weights 
and measures legally adopted in the Island is introduced in the ex- 
ercises. The problems are taken from practical life situations and 
deal with the insular industries and commerce.*° 

Ever since the American occupation many teachers and other 
citizens have criticized the public school system, on the ground that no 
religious or moral training was given therein. Reference has been 


49Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 556. 50Tbid. 


198 Education in Porto Rico 


made from time to time to the Spanish days when religious instruction 
was given in the schools. ‘To fill this vacancy in the public schools, 
to satisfy the demands of many people and at the same time to avoid 
sectarian religious teaching, Miss Susan D. Huntington, for many 
years professor at the University of Porto Rico, who, because of her 
contact with hundreds of young teachers who have gone out of the 
Normal School and her long residence in the Island, is well qualified 
to know the heart of the people, has prepared two bulletins on ‘‘Moral 
and Civic Training.” The first is in Spanish and intended for grades 
first to fourth inclusive and the second is in English and intended for 
grades fifth to eighth inclusive. 

Other text books are in the process of preparation, among thema 
History of the Island adapted to the fourth and fifth grades and 
another on Nature Study of the Island. Such has been the progress 
made in providing suitable text books for the elementary schools. 
The production of text books is a matter of experience and experi- 
ment and twenty years is comparatively a short time to do very 
much in this field, specially in a country with the educational prob- 
lems of Porto Rico. 


SUMMARY 


These outstanding problems have received the attention of the 
Department of Education but they are far from being solved. The 
extension of the school system and the adequate provision of buildings 
and equipment are primarily financial problems and can not be 
solved until some way is found to increase the appropriations for 
education. Co-education has been established and the experience 
thus far has not supported the contentions of its enemies during the 
Spanish régime. On the contrary co-education has had a beneficial 
influence on the education of both boys and girls. The American 
system has been established and extended, and the experience of 
the last two decades has shown that the eight year elementary school 
is not adapted to the needs of Porto Rico; nevertheless such organi- 
zation is still in force. 

The problem of adaptation is going on very slowly and it must 
be admitted that no intelligent adaptation worth mentioning has 
as yet been accomplished. Whatever adaptation has been ac- 
complished has been the result either of common sense on the part of 
skillful teachers, or of accident, but not the result of scientific in- 
vestigation. The tendency has been to copy and imitate the Ameri- 


Problems in Elementary Education 199 


can system rather than to create. However, recently this problem 
has been receiving much attention and the results are already notice- 
able. In spite of the lack of a scientific approach there was so much 
to be done at the time of the American occupation that good results 
had to come from any sort of system, and the great educational 
progress since 1898 must be recognized. But there is no doubt that 
more could have been accomplished had there been an intelligent 
adaptation. 

To appreciate how these problems have been approached and are 
being solved, a study of the work of the elementary schools is neces- 
sary. 


CHAPTER XI 
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION: II. THE SCHOOLS 


The rural and graded schools, often called the commor schools 
make up in the most part the public school system of Porto Rico. 
They are designed for purposes of general education, their object 
being to spread education broadcast so as to reduce the amount of 
illiteracy and give every possible encouragement to the develop- 
ment of the intellectual powers of the children of all grades of attain- 
ment, as they are brought together in rural schools, where a single 
teacher teaches all the subjects of the curriculum varying greatly 
according to the age and attainment of the pupils; and as they are 
brought together under more favorable conditions in the urban dis- 
tricts where the number of pupils permits of a more exact grading 
and of the assignment of different grades to special teachers. The 
night schools soon developed as an adjunct of the common schools, 
because many children could not attend the day schools. 


A. Rwurawt ScHOOLS 


Rural schools are those outside of the seventy-six urban districts 
of the Island. For some time some rural schools were conducted near 
the urban districts, but now these have been removed to the country 
where they belong. The rural schools form the great majority of the 
elementary schools. 

Rural Population. According to the 1899 census, Porto Rico had 
a total population of 953,243 inhabitants of which 78.6 per cent 
was rural, that is, living in the country or in villages under 1,000 
inhabitants.!. The census of 1910 as well as that of 1920 defined 
urban population as “that residing in cities, towns and villages 
having 2,500 inhabitants or more, the remainder being classified as 
rural.”? According to this definition 80 per cent of the total popu- 
lation in 1910 was rural,’ and 78.2 per cent in 1920.4 It must be 
NGoieus of Porto Rico, 1899, p. 44. 


274th Census of U. S., 1920 Bulletin, Population of Porto Rico, p. 1. 
3Ibid., p. 2. 4Thid. 


(200) 


The Schools 201 


kept in mind, however, that this definition of rural population and 
this census computation is not entirely satisfactory for school pur- 
poses. 

The Federal census credits Porto Rico with only two cities and 
thirty towns of over 2,500 inhabitants, whereas the Island has 
seventy-six distinct municipalities each one of which has an urban 
center and at least an urban graded school. Rural enrollment ac- 
cording to the department of education includes the population 
attending rural schools outside of the seventy-six municipalities, 
while urban enrollment includes all those attending schools in the 
urban districts. Therefore there are thousands of children in the 
territory classed as rural by the census who attend urban schools. 
There are also many children who live in the country but who attend 
the graded schools in the towns; these are generally the children of 
families of means who desire their children to continue in schools 
after they have finished the rural school course. There are also 
many children who live in semi-urban districts who attend urban 
schools. 

Rural School Census, 1920. There is no legal provision in Porto 
Rico for the enumeration of the children of school age and those 
of compulsory school age. The present compulsory school law can- 
not be enforced as there are not as yet school facilities for all the 
children of compulsory age. In order to find out the rural popu- 
lation of school age in those barrios where there are schools established, 
and in order to know more correctly the rural school population, 
that is those children that go to rural schools outside of the villages, 
the department of education undertook to make a rural school census. 
This census includes only the population in rural barrios or wards, 
where schools are established, no enumeration being made of a few 
barrios where there are not as yet any schools, nor was any 
effort made to reach the children living at unreasonable distances 
from any school. | 

Imperfect as this census is, it showed, however, that in these 
barrios where schools are established, most of the children are being 
reached by the school; that the rural school population is not nearly 
as large as the Federal census would indicate; that many children 
from the country are attending urban schools; that the course of 
study is limited to the first four grades as a rule; and that school 
facilities are lacking for many thousands of children, especially 
considering that over 90 per cent of the rural schools are on double 


202 Education in Porto Rico 


enrollment, that is, forty children attending from nine to twelve o’clock 
in the forenoon and another group of forty from one to four o’clock 
in the afternoon. The census further shows that on the territory it 
covered, there were 204,017 children of school age, 116,783 children 
of compulsory school age, and that there was a total enrollment in 
the rural schools of 115,077 pupils.® 

Extension of Rural Education. Notwithstanding this decrease in 
the rural school population as presented in the Federal census, the 
fact remains just the same that the problem of elementary educa- 
tion in Porto Rico is a problem of rural education, the rural popula- 
tion being much larger than the urban. It remains now to show 
what has been done in the past two decades to provide school facilities 
for this mass of rural school children. The extension of education 
in the rural districts follows the same general outline of the extension 
of education since the United States took possession of the Island: 
first the period to 1907, the period of establishment; second to 1914, 
the period of extension; and third, since 1914, a period of readjust- 
ment and adaptation of the rural schools to local needs. 

During the scholastic year ending June 1899, there were reported 
313 rural schools, 426 barrios without any school facilities and 267,- 
630 children most of them from the country out of school.6 Rural 
schools were established so that by 1903 there were 580 rural schools.” 
In subsequent years there was a decrease in the number of schools 
maintained until 1907 when 614 schools were established.® Rural 
school extension progressed steadily during the period of exten- 
sion until 1914 when there were 2,390 rural schools, an increase 
of over 389 per cent. These schools were taught by 1,235 teachers, 
94 per cent of whom had double enrollment.?® 

New Aim in Rural Education. So far the emphasis had been placed 
on extension of school facilities for the largest number possible, adding 
one more grade here and there whenever pupils desired to continue 
in school beyond the grade the school reached. Most of the work 
was done in Spanish with a few exceptions of schools which conducted 
their work in English as a medium of instruction. Since 1915 
under Commissioner Paul G. Miller, rural education took another 
course. This last period has had two aims, first to use the rural 
school as a community center to awaken public interest and extend 


'Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1920, pp. 418-19. 

*56th Congress, S. D. 363, pp. 151-152. 

"Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1906, p. 67. 

®Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1907, p. 392. 7TIbid., 1914, p. 358. 


The Schools 203 


the usefulness of the rural school, and second, to consolidate rural 
schools wherever possible. During this period the number of rural 
schools have decreased but the number of teachers and enrollment 
have increased. Most of the teachers have had double enrollment. 
In 1918, 87 per cent of the rural schools were on double enrollment; 
in 1919, 90 per cent and in 1920, 90 per cent.!® In spite of the 
double enrollment, during the academic year 1919-1920 thousands 
of pupils of school age were turned away, and still there is an average 
of 67 pupils to each teacher and a total enrollment of 115,077 pupils." 

The Course of Study. There has never been much difference 
between the content of the course of study offered in the rural schools 
from that offered in the urban schools, as the first three grades of 
every school, whether urban or rural, must aim more or less for the 
same thing. 

Until 1908, the curriculum of most of the rural schools was limited 
to the first three grades of the elementary school course of study and 
in many of them only work in the first grade or in the first two grades 
was Offered. In the scholastic year 1908-1909 the fourth grade was 
added in a considerable number of schools and in the following year 
instruction in the fifth grade was offered where there were enough 
advanced pupils to form a class.” So far the medium of instruction 
in the class room had been Spanish, but now some teachers at their 
own request were allowed to conduct all of the classes in English.¥ 
The following year the sixth grade was added to the rural school 
curriculum, but there were no pupils enrolled in that grade, and more- 
over, in all the rural schools of the Island, at that time 1642, only 
31 offered work in the fourth grade and three in the fifth grade,” 
so practically the course of study was thus far confined to the first 
three grades. 

By 1914 the academic content remained the same but considerable 
more emphasis was being placed on the teaching of agriculture and 
music. The rural school was being used more as a center for general 
agricultural instruction and propaganda. Regarding the work of the 
year the Commissioner reports as follows, speaking of the work in 
agriculture: “‘In the rural schools an average of 44,392 boys took 
advantage of the instruction offered and in many cases the girls 
~10Taken from the Governor’s reports for the respective years. 

Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1920, p. 417. 

12Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1911, p. 6. 


13 Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1911, p. 209. 
4Jhid., p. 181. 


204 Education in Porto Rico 


aided in the work, although it was not compulsory for them. The 
work was conducted under the direction of the regular teachers, the 
special teacher of agriculture visiting as many rural schools as possible 
each month. During the year 1,135 vegetable gardens, occupying 
an area of approximately 225 acres, were in operation in the rural 
communities. . .A total of 7,866 home vegetable gardens were culti- 
vated by the pupils in the rural districts.) 

Rural Uplift Campaign. In recent years the course of study has 
been limited generally, except in the consolidated rural schools, to the 
first four grades of the elementary school course, following more or 
less the same methods as in the urban schools. As already stated 
the aim during this latter period has been placed on the use of the 
rural school as a community center and in the extension of the use- 
fulness of the school. In order to accomplish this end a rural up- 
lift campaign was ushered in, in 1916. Its purpose was: To reduce 
illiteracy; to arouse the interest of the rural population in rural 
education; to help the peasantry to improve living conditions; to 
put these people in touch with the world beyond their huts, giving 
them a taste of the things that make life more pleasant; to make the 
rural school the social center of the barrios and to improve rural 
home and community sanitation. From this campaign there de- 
veloped various activities as evening classes for adults; parent organ- 
izations and meetings; rural conferences; reading and library facili- 
ties; instruction in gardening and rural industries and visits to homes 
of parents. The most salient feature of the rural campaign was the 
gathering of parents for the purpose of hearing simple addresses and 
lectures relating to the rural school and to community life. 

As a result the peasant has come to realize that the public school 
belongs to him as much as it does to the planter or the merchant. 
The rural teacher has become a teacher of the community. The 
visits to homes of the illiterate peasantry has done much to stimu- 
late the interest of parents in schools, and the result is better attend- 
ance and greater co-operation with the teachers. The rural school is 
reaching out to the home and assuming a leadership in local affairs. 
It is improving home and communal living conditions without tres- 
passing into the field of politics.'® 

In 1917 the legislature appropriated salaries for 275 additional 
rural teachers, the parent associations increased to 494 and they 
held 150 meetings during the year. Through the efforts and co- 


Ibid., 1914, p. 362.  —*Ibid., 1916, p. 354. 


The Schools 205 


operation of these associations the following improvements were 
made: Higher enrollment, greater regularity and punctuality in 
attendance, many roads have been repaired and a number of bridges 
were built, a more adequate number of latrines were built and 
higher enthusiasm and keen interest was aroused in the work of the 
schools, rural conferences were held, rural libraries were established, 
and books were bought by parents associations and school boards; 
120 rural schools were operated independently of the department where 
night sessions were maintained to teach reading, writing and elements 
of arithmetic to illiterates. They were taught by the local school 
teachers who did not receive any additional remuneration for their 
extra service. One supervisor edited a rural school paper for free 
distribution which the children read to their unlettered parents.!” 

The work was continued in subsequent years and in 1920 the re- 
port of the Commissioner reveals that the parents associations have 
co-operated with the schools. Rural conferences have resulted in 
better attendance and in drawing the interest of parents in the school. 
Hygienic conditions have been improved. The “Botiquin Escolar” 
or school medicine chest has become an institution in many schools. 
Any one who knows the Porto Rican peasants and the money they 
waste in all sort of medicines and vaselines knows the value of the 
medicine chest and the guidance on the part of the teacher in the use 
of medicines. Improvements of roads and bridges have been con- 
tinued. Libraries and reading centers have prospered. The special 
teachers of agriculture have carried the message of modern agriculture 
to many small farmers. The following facts for the academic year, 
1919-1920, will show more concretely the activities of the rural 
school :— 


Parents AssOCigVionse eects) eee re set te att melee Ca eri aCe mene RI Ligh 
Number Ob Mee Lings series ts ee ce nee i ee SI LD LR LIS. OG 
Total number olsrural conterencest ar.) ) tne aati aitk aioe ae ae aie deo 
Total number of visits to parents homes.......................142030 
Lota number obrural libraries siya aU cb ane ot AL ayes tea pe LOL 
Votal nnmber of reading. centersiyn. cee a ae pets oie een 166 
Total number of rural schools where night sessions were maintained 
by rural teachers without remuneration................-..-05 14018 


Consolidated Rural Schools. Before 1915, in rural communities 
where there were many children requiring the services of two teachers 
a two-room school house was built, and the two teachers would divide 


7]bid., 1917, p. 463. 
18Tbid., 1920, p. 419. 


206 Education in Porto Rico 


the work between them, one teaching the lower and the other the 
upper grade. Together with the campaign for improvement of 
rural education, the consolidation of rural schools was begun. Due 
to the topography of the land, the many streams and rivers which 
swell into raging torrents during the rainy season, and the lack of more 
rural roads, the consolidation of rural schools has been limited thus 
far to the coast districts where better means of communication are 
available. 

Up to 1920, 96 consolidated rural schools had been established 
with from two to four rooms. In these schools the organization is 
carried through the sixth grade and in two of them the full eight-grade 
elementary course of study is maintained.'® These schools bring 
together two, three, four or more schools and their teachers within 
one building or common center, in contrast with the average rural 
school where often an inexperienced and immature teacher struggled 
alone with two, three and four grades with a large enrollment and on a 
double enrollment plan. They also constitute the community center 
of their respective barrios, wherein are to be found rural libraries, 
means for entertaining and social functions, and where noon-day 
lunches are distributed free to underfed pupils. The establishment 
of such schools, which aside from their social value improve the means 
and methods for academic instruction, is changing slowly the rural 
communities of Porto Rico. 

The leisure time of the Porto Rican peasant hangs heavily on his 
hands. He is generally a gambler and would not object to live by 
chance if enough good chances would come his way, and so spends 
his leisure hours shooting dice, playing cards or fighting game- 
cocks. The consolidated rural school can fulfill a great service pro- 
viding wholesome activities for this class of people, who make up the 
majority of the population of the Island. 

Enrollment, Attendance and Promotions. The enrollment of the 
rural schools is large, due generally to the fact that there are not 
enough schools to accommodate the children, the majority of them 
being on double enrollment. As far as data are available, for the last 
ten years or so, since the department has aimed to reach as many 
pupils of school age as possible, the following table shows the per- 
centage of schools with double enrollment at various times: 

1910 62 per cent of the schools were on double enrollment 


1913 84 6é eé “ce 6é “cc “ 6c “cc oe 
Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1920, p. 411. 


The Schools 207 


1914 94 per cent of the schools were on double enrollment 


1918 87 66¢ 6s 6é 66 66 66 66 66 66 
1919 90 66 66 66 ce 66 ce 66 6s 66 
1920 90 66 ee se sé sé 66 6¢é 66 sé 


The only reason for such conditions is the lack of facilities to 
accommodate all those who go to school.?° 

Attendance has improved in the last two years. The following 
table shows the percentage of average daily attendance from 1912 to 
1920: 


Pe DD Aiea ply a SOMME Ae eae ga al 71 per cent 
OL aT iae Cae Ciena a eee a oreo. 8S Den CORLL, 
LOLA Oy een CREME ORL ns deen DEL CON’ 
LOTS Bie Mere i en OR OT aR ner cent 
LLG Pua Ui att aniy ae onal cate hr bare te 77.6 per cent 
POD Sau apache been ese lg Oud DOT COLE 
LORCA Re me om iusiie tenn kel aad LO Det CONE 
TOTO pee he One econ n na nee UN Den Cant 
1920 Ware ea tenn tate nai (SOUP ner oem tah 


Promotions. As a general rule, promotions in the rural schools 
have been low. In the first years of the system this was due mainly 
to poor attendance, to lack of adaptation of the course of study, to 
defective grading and many times to defective teaching. In 1906 
and 1907, only 41 to 47 per cent respectively were promoted. From 
1907 to 1915 a system of flexible promotion was adopted with good 
results but still the percentage of promotion was low. That system 
has been continued and in late years there have been some improve- 
ments, but still a high percentage is not promoted. During the last 
few years when emphasis has been placed on rural education, pro- 
motion has ranged from 60 to 72 per cent. In 1916, 60.5 per cent | 
were promoted; in 1918, 72.6 per cent; in 1919, 65.6 and in 1921, 
68.9 per cent were promoted.” 

The chief causes for the low percentage of promotion are irregular 
attendance, due a great deal to illness; bad roads and heavy rains; 
poverty and undernourishment, mavy pupils not being able to 
do good work because they are not sufficiently and properly 
nourished; while double enrollment, confining the child to a three- 
hour session a day, is another chief cause for retardation, as the pupils 
are not a sufficient time under instruction to cover the required work 
of the course of study. 

)26Cémputed from Reports of the Governor for respective years. 


*1Pata taken from the reports for the respective years. 
Computed from the Reports of the Governor for the respective years. 


208 Education in Porto Rico 


The Rural School of To-day Leaves Much to be Desired. 'The pupils 
who attend the rural schools are the children of the peasantry, who 
have inherited poverty from generations and before whom there is a 
dark future. The great majority of the children belong to this class. 
They are born in mere huts, brought up often in large families, 
underfed, and scantily dressed. They attend the rural schools and 
finish the fourth grade when they are fortunate to remain the four 
years in school. They know some reading, writing, and arithmetic, 
a little geography and a little history and they are not illiterates, but 
they are not prepared for anything. The great majority can not go 
to town to school to continue their education. Mere knowledge of 
reading and writing does not guarantee food, clothing, shelter, and 
after all that is what the peasantry as well as anyone else needs. 

The rural environment is anything but wholesome. There is very 
little opportunity for work outside of the sugar cane fields and coffee 
plantations, and even these industries do not furnish enough labor 
for the numerous peasantry, and when they do, wages are low. 
Literacy is not necessary to cut cane and pick coffee beans, and as a 
general rule the illiterate is happier in such work than the literate for 
the latter has learned enough to learn to be unhappy and dissatisfied 
with his state. The school does not prepare the child for anything, 
and there is no future for him but an early marriage and to settle 
down to bring to the world a large and unfortunate family and to 
continue the traditions of his forefathers. At the age of thirty or 
thirty-five, the peasant is an old man or an old woman and death 
generally comes prematurely. What a task for the rural schools; 
not only to give the peasant a knowledge of reading and writing, this 
is the least, but to prepare him or her to be a self-supporting man or 
woman. ‘This task is entirely for the future as very little has thus 
far been done to improve the economic condition of the peasant, 
which is after all the basis of all his happiness. 


B. GRADED SCHOOLS 


Definition. 'The graded schools are those established in urban 
centers, carefully graded from the first to the eighth grade and 
preparing to enter the high school. All urban communities have 
graded schools and as a general rule each grade is taught by one 
teacher. For the purpose of the department of education urban 
population comprises the inhabitants of the seventy-six towns of the 
Island, hence the urban population according to the department is 


The Schools 209 


larger than that according to the United States Census. According 
to the latter, the urban population of school age in 1899 was 68,992; 
in 1910, 78,128; and in 1920, 98,851, but according to the depart- 
ment these would be increased considerably. In view of the fact 
that there are no data of the urban population as defined by the de- 
partment of education, this study will be based on the data furnished 
by the Federal Census. 

Extension of Urban Education. It was some time after the Ameri- 
can occupation before the graded schools were functioning well, so 
the first years were spent introducing and adopting the courses of 
study. By 1906-1907, the graded schools were well organized and 
could well compare with any other urban graded school system. 
The estimated school population then was 354,721” and on the basis 
of 21 per cent of urban population the children of school age in urban 
districts would be 73,491. The urban schools had an enrollment of 
29,904 or 40.6 per cent of the urban population of school age. In 
1910 the estimated school population was 390,000 and the urban 
school population 78,000. The enrollment in the graded schools 
then was 35,000 or 44.8 per cent of the urban population of school 
age. The enrollment increased steadily until 1914 when it reached 
70,954, the highest enrollment on record. The estimated urban 
population of school age the next year was 88,049 of which 80.5 per 
cent enrolled in the graded schools. 

It must be kept in mind that this was the “‘year of the big budget,” 
and consequently the year of highest enrollment. After 1914 the 
enrollment decreased reaching the lowest point in 1918, when 50,060 
children, were enrolled in the urban schools, but it rose again, and in 
1920 it was 59,174, or 60 per cent of the estimated urban population 
of school age, which was then 98,851. The enrollment for 1921 
continued, the increase being 62,126, but even yet there are not schoo] 
facilities for at least 36,735 children between the ages of 5 and 18, 
However, great progress has been made in the extension of urban 
education, much more so than rural. In 1912 there were only 752 
urban graded schools, while in 1914 there were 1,344,"4 and in 1920, 
1,204. Since the urban school census is larger than the figures 
of the Federal census would show, with this added increase, the chil- 
dren of school age in urban districts would increase considerably, 


23See Appendix VII, ‘Table I. 
*4Including 319 schools on double enrollment. 


210 Education in Porto Rico 


thus increasing the lack of school facilities for all the children of 
school age. 3 

The Course of Study. Several courses of study have been adopted 
from time to time by the department of education. The first one 
was promulgated by General Henry in 1899, the second was prepared 
by Dr. Brumbaugh in 1901, the third by Commissioner Falkner in 
1906, and the fourth by Commissioner Dexter in 1909, and put into 
operation that same year. After that the course of study has been 
revised from time to time accordingly as emphasis was placed on one 
or another subject of study. These different courses differ very 
little in content, for the work to be covered in the elementary school 
is very much the same, but they differ inasmuch as the emphasis 
placed on the language to be used as a medium of instruction has 
changed. Also, from time to time, more emphasis has been placed 
on the teaching of special subjects. 

The courses prepared by General Henry and Dr. Brumbaugh were 
based largely upon experience of American schools. Local needs 
had not yet made themselves sufficiently felt to exercise much in- 
fluence in the shaping of the course of study. As time went on these 
needs were better understood, the course being changed ac- 
cordingly. Moreover, the first courses of study were based upon the 
supposition that the instruction in the schools was given in Spanish, 
with the teaching of English as a special study only. But the teachers 
made great progress in the use of the English language between 1900 
and 1907. As they became more and more versed in English, they 
continued changing the medium of instruction, using more English 
and less Spanish. The work to be covered in the eight grades was 
the same whatever the language employed, but it had to be differently 
distributed accordingly as English or Spanish was the predominant 
medium of instruction. By 1907 English had become predominantly 
the language of the class room so that the course of study was changed 
to fit this need. The changes made then had to be adopted slowly 
as not all teachers could use the English language well, but the aim 
was centered on the use of English as the medium of instruction and 
all teachers had to begin a gradual adaptation to that aim. The 
course of study was more of a model to go by than a law to be rigorous- 
ly enforced. 

The changes made in 1909-1910 were also based on the language 
question. In almost every town, the strongest English graded 
teachers (Porto Ricans who excelled in the knowledge and use of 


The Schools 211 


English) were assigned to the first grades, and English graded teachers 
almost equally proficient to the second grades. The Spanish graded 
teachers (those whose English was not good enough to conduct the 
class in that language) were as a rule assigned to the third and fourth 
grades where they taught Spanish and possibly one other subject. 
In order that the pupils of these grades might be permitted to do 
practically all their work in English, these Spanish graded teachers 
would exchange class rooms with the English graded teachers and 
the teachers of English (American and some Porto Ricans who knew 
English well) in such a way that while they were teaching Spanish in 
a room other than their own, the English graded teacher or the 
teacher of English as the case might be, would be teaching a certain 
subject in English in the room. The teachers of English, generally 
Americans, were given grades fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth.* 

Thus the children heard good English and received good English 
instruction at the beginning and at the end of their school course. 
Moreover as the American teachers did not know Spanish and there- 
fore were not fitted to teach the first grades, they obtained better 
results with the pupils in the higher grades who were more advanced 
in English. Other changes made before 1915 were due to the em- 
phasis given to the teaching of special subjects such as music, drawing, 
manual training, home economics and agriculture. The changes 
made since 1915 have been based mostly on the teaching of Spanish 
and English. 

Enrollment, Attendance and Promotions. The following table, 
computed from the Governor’s report for the respective years as 
far as the data are available, will show the improvement in enroll- 
ment, attendance and promotions since 1906 at which time school 
extension became a special aim of the department of education. 


Year Total Enrollment Average Percentage Per cent 
Attendance of Attendance Promotion 
1906 28,116 20,703 73.9 54 
1907 29,904 20,672 74 64 
1908 25,702 Se es — 
1909 32,547 ss SUE IRE — 
1910 35,000 31,200 89 eri 
1911 46,173 38,800 79.7 68.9 
1912 58,809 40,966 79.1 68.78 
1913 52,594 41,351 78.7 ari 
1914 70,954 57,230 80.6 ee 


Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1910, pp. 7-8. 


212 Education in Porto Rico 


Year Total Enrollment Average Percentage Per cent 
Attendance of Attendance Promotion 
1915 65,428 52,417 80.1 77.7 
1916 60,623 50,763 83.7 — 
1917 53,372 43,317 81.2 76.2 
1918 50,060 41,286 82.4 81.8 
1919 54,422 44,879 82.4 76.7 
1920 59,174 49,821 84 82.6 
1921 62,126 ees ee 81.7 


The percentage of attendance is still low. It must be remembered 
that this is computed on the basis of the total enrollment and not 
on the basis of the average daily enrollment, in which case the per- 
centage of attendance would be much higher. Promotions are also 
low, but a great improvement has been made since the academic 
year 1905-1906. Poverty and illness, chiefly uncinariasis, among the 
children is accountable for much retardation and inefficient school 
work. Double enrollment in some urban schools, causing groups of 
pupils to receive only half time instruction, is another cause for re- 
tardation and low promotion. 

Graduates of the Graded Schools. Ever since the graded schools 
were established, they have offered an eight-year course of study asa 
requisite to enter the high school. They have aimed to give a 
general education and to spread education broadcast thus reducing 
illiteracy. A study of the number of eighth grade diplomas issued 
since 1903 will show how many pupils have completed the course of 
study every year. 


Year Diplomas Issued 
LOOSING a nan 2 eA eee) Ee avs eee chee me As 
LOO it vad cole, Mickle tales Basak McRae Renee 45 
POG rey apetatllo sie 8 UTNE Ueare: © ei uia eae et ie ete me 
ABD si ot AT ee Cia rena ln eto aseone True e a YA 
LOS yi eee ie ai che) SAR Ae eo RM AAPM NG Bey 
ARYL Me Ab ase atrs hep i: CALE MLR af Moet teat a te Cig eta} 
ED FURR Ga aPUPa are wT oe Miner A WA ee FEAL 707 
OD te carton Cais Werte hak eane et oe eter ate ee oO 
TO LG eR ae oni Ree aarti one ate 1,325 
He Me tile ea mae ar La Pied YUN UN Wii i bad Wal a 2. 
LR De Saar Adins Cie os Mpa eA ta rere Mee tite) SMBS ak HUY 
DOUG ie SNS ati Wel diate wire k oe Late ata eat PRI Oy Ee 
TOR eee Biche Ao, Ruan et CU i Cae 
NOU Tis BDU OAT Recah ike oi a heat Oat 1,935 


TOTS sites Side rela tae ake on oe otnaw LaMar ane MaSes Cea 


The Schools 213 


EER BO earns Ca eb Maret RAM aaa 2h | 
1920) a ah ae aetna aie} puee, 2a 
1SZE sere dete leis. epee 


Although the graduates from the elementary schools have in- 
creased in late years, yet the majority of the pupils have dropped 
out before completing the elementary school course. Many drop 
out of school when they complete the eighth grade, while a few con- 
tinue and take a high school course, and still a smaller number go to 
college and university. The eight year elementary school course has 
prepared those who continue in school beyond the eighth grade. 
It has prepared them for something. It has accomplished its pur- 
pose. Pupils leaving the school at the end of the eighth grade are 
not prepared for anything in particular. They have a general educa- 
tion and are prepared for further study, but as far as being pre- 
pared to be self-supporting they are not. Their schooling of course 
will be an asset in whatever trade or profession they may enter, but 
the school has not prepared them for a life work. 

Still the largest number of children drop out of school sometime 
between the fourth and eighth grade. These are not illiterate. 
They know reading, writing, arithmetic, some geography and some 
history, and that is about all. This is, no doubt, a great deal, but 
should the school stop with that? The majority of the pupils re- 
ceive such an education and no more. The school has not prepared 
them for anything in particular. Hence the need of a new aim and 
an organization to achieve that aim. 


C. Nicut ScHOoOoLs 


The first school law of Porto Rico under the civil government 
approved by the legislature April 9, 1901, provided for night schools 
as follows:— 

‘The commissioner of education upon application of twenty young 
men unable to attend day school for justified reasons, may establish 
a night school in each town and may also close the same when the 
average attendance in any one month does not reach twelve stu- 
dents.’’2”? Later the following clause was added to the above pro- 
vision :—‘‘adults may be admitted to night school when in the judg- 
ment of the local school authorities they are able to profit by the in- 
struction offered and their presence in the said night school will 


26Data taken from the Reports of the Governor of Porto Rico for the respective 


years. 
27Compiled School Laws of Porto Rico, April 9, 1901, Sec. 26. 


Q14 Education in Porto Rico 


not operate to the exclusion of eligible young persons who desire 
admission.’ By subsequent legislation the Commissioner of 
Education has been empowered to establish at his discretion a night 
school in each municipality and may establish more than one school in 
any city where in his opinion the demand for such a night school 
may warrant it.2? As provided by law, therefore, the night schools 
are an adjunct part of the public school system of Porto Rico. 

Although the night schools were intended for boys and girls of 
school age who could not attend school during the day, yet the first 
who petitioned for these schools were laborers and clerks, that is, 
adults. Reporting on the beginning of these schools, Dr. Brum- 
baugh says as follows:—‘‘Last year several of these schools were 
opened as soon as the law became operative. Many more will be 
opened this year. The petitions reveal peculiar conditions, many 
laborers and clerks petition the department for night schools. Under 
the law, those above the legal school age are not entitled to receive 
free education at a night school yet these are the ones that petition 
most earnestly for such schools. Their action reveals the great 
desire of many citizens to acquire an education. The demand is for 
instruction in the English language, in the history of the United 
States and in arithmetic. Itis a great opportunity and one that must 
be seized. As soon as the salary list of the day schools is determined 
the remainder of the budget will be used to open as many of these 
schools as the available finances will allow.’’° 

Some schools were opened the next year and as it was to be ex- 
pected, many of the pupils were adults. Moreover about this time 
the cigar makers union demanded of its members the ability to read 
and write, hence their desire for night school instruction. Com- 
missioner Lindsay reported an attendance of 2,767 for the year 1901- 
1902, with 64.7 per cent of the pupils in actual attendance, and most 
of these persons of adult years, occupied at hard work during the 
day.*! Due to the attendance of adults the legislature in 1903 made 
provision for them. ‘The night elementary school was a new thing, 
and like all new things it was welcomed by the people. Neverthe- 
less, the schools were merely on trial, their future undecided, as it 
depended on how the people patronized them and how the legislature 
would provide for their support. 


*8Comptled School Laws of 1903, Sec. 61. 

29Act of March 9, 1905, School Laws of Porto Rico, 1914 (155). 

Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1901, pp. 59-60. 
1Ibid., 1902, p. 26. 


The Schools 215 


Extension of Night Schools. The history of the night schools follow 
the general outline of education in Porto Rico since 1898. Three 
periods are well marked, first, the period of establishment, and trial 
of the schools to 1907; second, the period of school extension, to 
1914; and third, the period of adjustment to circumstances and in- 
sular needs. The first period is characterized by a sudden rush of 
adults to night schools, followed by a fall in their attendance and an 
increase of children of school age. While during the first two years 
of their existence most of the pupils were adults, by 1906 they made 
up only 23 per cent of the total,* and by 1907 only 16 per cent.* 
Of the 2,846 pupils enrolled in 1906, 1,081 were between the ages of 
15 to 18 years, while 1,121 were between six and fifteen years. Of 
the 2,646 enrollment in 1907, 429 were adults, 828 between 15 to 
18 years of age, and 1,389 between 6 and 14 years.* After all the 
petitions and enthusiasm of the adults they left the schools which 
were then patronized more by children of school age between 10 
and 14 years. 

When Dr. Dexter became Commissioner he applied his policy of 
extension to the night schools. So far these schools had been con- 
fined to the urban districts, but in 1909 and 1910 quite a number 
were established in rural districts. Because of illiteracy the rural 
districts need the night schools more than the urban. As soon as 
night schools began to be established in the country, petitions came 
from young people in rural regions requesting the establishment of 
rural schools for an opportunity to learn to read, write and some in- 
struction in arithmetic. By 1912 there were established altogether 
139 night urban schools and 209 rural, the former with an enroll- 
ment of 8,594.°°> In the year 1913 there were established 150 schools 
within urban limits and 149 in rural districts, with enrollment of 
7,430 and 5,157 respectively. Still the extension of night schools 
continued and by 1914 there were 565 both urban and rural.** This 
made it possible for many who could not attend school during the 
day to do so at night. 

For the next academic year there was no appropriation made, but 
the yearly budget carried with it a provision that “as scholarships 
granted for the training of young men and young women from Porto 
Rico in the schools of the United States become vacant, no new 


Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1906, p. 104. 
38Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1907, p. 411. 4Ibid., p. 412. 
35 Tbid., 1912, p. 233. 367Tbid., 1914, p. 361. 


216 Education in Porto Rico 


appointments thereto should be made, but the surplus fund resulting 
from such vacancies should be devoted to the maintenance of night 
schools.’’*7 With these funds 185 night schools were opened and 
maintained for eighteen weeks or 85 school days, 128 of these were 
maintained in urban districts and 68 in rural,®®* and the policy of 
extension came to an end with the change of Commissioner, but more 
so due to lack of funds. 

Technical Instruction and Sewing in Night Schools. Besides the 
night schools conducted strictly on academic line, several super- 
visors recommended the establishment of instruction in sewing and 
manual training into the night schools.*® During the school year 
1912-1913, sewing was offered in one of the night schools for half an 
hour each night,’° and a night trade school was established in San 
Juan, giving instruction in plumbing, bricklaying, carpentry, auto- 
mobile mechanics, and mechanical drawing. The session lasted 
five months during which time 206 were enrolled but only with an 
average attendance of 85. However, at the expiration of the five 
months experimental period, the interest was such that the ad- 
visability of continuing the work without interruption was un- 
questioned.*! The next year twelve industrial night schools were 
maintained in different towns with a total enrollment of 378, the 
average age of the students being 24 years. The San Juan school 
offered the same curriculum as the year before and added sewing for 
the girls. The instruction in most of the other schools was confined 
to elementary wood working.” 

Later Instruction in Night Schools. The budget for the academic 
year did not permit the maintenance of night schools in 1915. In 
1916 they were revived, confining themselves to the instruction iv the 
regular elementary school subjects and mostly among illiterate boys 
and girls who desired to learn to read and write. It was not until 
the scholastic year 1919-1920 when technical instruction was re- 
vived and given in Boldorioty de Castro Graded and Technical 
School, when 244 pupils had instruction in industrial subjects.“ 
The night schools were continued during the academic year 1920- 
21 with an enrollment of 2,987, with 158 enrolled for industrial, 
technical instruction.“4 | The retrenchments taken since 1915 were 


37Ibid., 1915, p. 328. 38Tbid., 1915, p. 328. 

39Jbid., 1911, p. 193. 

Ao Tbeds, LENS pues se: 41Jbid., 1913, p. 334. ®7Ibid., 1914, p. 361. 
“Ibid., 1920, p. 415. 

“The Porto Rico School Review, Sept. 1921, p. 10. 


The Schools Q17 


due mostly to lack of funds;at the same time care has been taken in 
avoiding numbers. Although the work has beer confined mostly to 
the elementary school subjects, yet what has been done has been done 
more thoroughly and efficiently than in past years, and the schools 
have aimed to provide elementary instruction in reading, writing, 
and arithmetic for five months of the year, two hours each evening, 
for five evenings a week, to the many boys and some girls who do not 
get to school during the day, or to young men who are illiterate and 
desire to learn to read and write. 

Private Schools. Soon after the American occupation the Protes- 
tant denominations established many mission schools in Porto Rico. 
It has been the policy of the Protestant churches to co-operate with 
the department of education, hence they have aimed to supplement 
the work of the department. At first these schools aimed to give the 
same general education as the public schools, but as the public 
schools extended, the mission schools have been turning their attention 
to industrial education, chiefly hat making, basket weaving, em- 
broidery, and lace making. These schools follow the elementary 
course of study of the public schools. The Roman Catholic church 
has a system of parochial schools, very strong in San Juan, Maya- 
giiez and Caguas, and there are other private schools conducted by 
individuals for profit as a means of livelihood. 

In 1920 there were forty-six privete schools with a total enroll- 
ment of 5,283 and a teaching force of 187. They offered work ranging 
from kindergarten to high school instruction. Twenty-one of them 
followed the official course of study for the common schools, as out- 
lined by the department of education.*® The private school as a 
force in education is increasing while also more advantage is being 
taken of the facilities offered by the public schools. At the present 
time there is plenty of opportunity for private schools to render a 
great service as long as they co-operate with the department of 
education and aim to educate rather than to gain recruits for a 
particular sectarian, denominational or political belief. 

Summary. Instruction in the elementary school subjects is given 
in three kinds of schools, rural, graded and night schools. The 
rural schools are offering as a general rule instruction in the first 
four grades of the elementary school course, but the consolidated 
rural schools are offering as much as possible the graded school 
course. The graded schools offer an eight-year course leading to the 
~ Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1920, p. 432. 


218 Education in Porto Rico 


eighth-grade diploma. The night schools confine themselves mostly 
to instruction in the first few grades of the elementary school course 
given to the many boys or girls who do not get to school during the 
day or to illiterate young men and women who desire to learn to 
read and write. The rural and graded schools function ten months 
during the year, the night schools about five months. A reorgani- 
zation of the schools adapting them more to meet the local conditions 
is necessary. 

They should contribute more toward preparation for life in view of 
the great need among the poor people to fit themselves for a life 
work. The aim of the private schools should be to supplement as 
far as possible the public schools and co-operate with them in the 
great task of educating the masses. 


CHAPTER XII 


ELEMENTARY EDUCATION: TI. SPECIAL SUBJECTS 
AND AUXILIARY EDUCATIONAL AGENCIES 


By special subjects is meant those studies in the curriculum, the 
teaching of which receives specific emphasis because of their general 
practical value. The most important of these are: English and 
Spanish, Manual Training, Home Economics, Agriculture, and Physi- 
cal Education. 


A. THe TEACHING OF ENGLISH 


Since the establishment of Civil Government and the present 
system of public instruction, the aim of the department of education 
has been to develop and establish a bilingual system of education 
which would insure the conservation of Spanish and the acquisition 
of English, both to be mastered sufficiently for practical use. As 
Spanish was the language of the people, the immediate need was the 
acquisition of English. In order to carry out the policy of the de- 
partment, different plans have been tried and changed as experiences 
have dictated. 

English in the Graded Schools. 'The first plan tried was the teaching 
of English by a special teacher. The law provided that, “In every 
village and city maintaining a graded system of schools there shall 
be at least one teacher of English, and as many more as the Com- 
missioner of Education may appoint.”! No attempt was made to 
teach English in the rural schools any more than the rural teacher 
could do alone. The work of these special teachers of English was 
to give instruction in the English language to pupils and native 
teachers. The native teachers were placed in charge of the grades 
and taught all the subjects of the curriculum in Spanish, while the 
subject of English was taught by the American teachers who went 
from grade to grade teaching English three to six periods a day.” 


1The School Laws of Porto Rico, 1901, Sec. 18. 
2Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1904, p. 25. 


(219) 


220 Education in Porto Rico 


It became evident that the teaching of English as a special subject, 
using that language only during the English class, was not giving the 
pupils sufficient ear and verbal drill to master the language for practi- 
cal purposes. Especially was this so, when Spanish was used the 
rest of the day in school, as well as on the playground, the street, and 
in the home. The pupils did not hear English enough to accustom 
themselves to think in the language, hence a new plan of instruction 
had to be devised. The next plan tried was to introduce English 
as the medium of instruction in the class room. This was tried in 
the schools of San Juan, Ponce and Mayagitez, during the academic 
year 1903-1904, and proved successful, the pupils seemingly making 
more progress in English.2 The Porto Rican teachers had already 
made progress in the use of the English language. Moreover a 
special course was offered for teachers desiring to qualify to teach 
all the subjects of the curriculum in English. Fifty-four teachers 
passed the examinations and qualified,t and during the year 1905- 
1906, one hundred and sixty schools were taught wholly or partly in 
English as follows: 


1. Schools taught wholly in English by American teachers.............. 37 
2. Schools taught partly in English by American teachers............... 34 
3. Schools taught wholly in English by Porto Rican teachers............37 
4. Schools taught partly in English by Porto Rican teachers.............52° 
Total 060 GC eal a cae ott ate tee eke a ttt Ba oe 


This was the beginning of the introduction of English as the medium 
of instruction in the class room. English was introduced more and 
more extensively as Porto Rican teachers were licensed as English 
teachers and permitted to teach all the subjects of the curriculum in 
that language. In the grades taught by American teachers, a teacher 
of Spanish would come daily to teach Spanish, during one period. 
The change from Spanish into English as the medium of instruction 
in the class room was made gradually. The following table shows 
the progress that was made in the use of English as the medium of 
instruction in the graded schools from 1905 to 1912, when the bi- 
lingual system had been fully developed: 

Ibid. 


4Tbid., 1905, p. 19. 
5Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1907, p. 382. 


Special Subjects 221 


Graded Schools 1905— |1906— 1907- 1908- 1909- 1910- 1911- 
Taught 1906 |1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 

Wholly in English 74 202 288 442 607 659 759. 

Partly in English 86 | 187 128 64 67 31 11. 


English as a special 
subject or no 


English 340 113 147 157 4 5 1, 
Total graded schools 500 502 563 663 678 695 771.0 
Percentage wholly in 

English 15 40 51 67 90 95 98.4 
Percentage partly in 

English 17 ot 23 10 10 5 1.68 


By 1915, the approximate distribution of English, Spanish or 
either in the class room as media of instruction in the different grades 
of the graded school system was as follows: 


English Spanish _ Either Total 
Grade a oo 
Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent 
1-2 37.5 28.1 34.4 100 
3 43.1 30.8 96.1 100 
4 36.95 36.95 26.1 100 
5 49,2 26.1 94.7 100 
6 53.8 18.5 al 100 
TET eis atk ATCA as RIED NG 55.4 18.5 96.1 100 
Ree nicest Faas ard be A siacae FN 55.4 18.5 26.1 100. 
DE eee ae | eee MEL US NTL Hc ue ere ke Le 7 
AVETAGCs ana e eatiet 47 34 25.35 27.31 100. 


English in the Rural Schools. Rural schools conducted wholly in 
English were unknown before 1909. That year one hundred twenty- 
four teachers asked for and obtained permission from their super- 
visors to teach all the subjects of their schools in English. The use 
of English as the medium of instruction in the rural schools grew as 
shown in the following table: 


6Ibid., 1912, p. 248. 
7Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1915, p. 343. 


229 Education in Porto Rico 


Rural Schools 1908- Per 1909- | Per 1910- Per 1911- Per 
Taught 1909 Cent 1910 | Cent | 1911 Cent | 1912 Cent 


ef | | ef | LL SF 


Wholly in Eng- 


lish | 124 15 154 16 188 17.0 
Partly in English| 183 20 209 22 222 23 | 238 22.0 
English as a 

Special Sub- 

ject 152 B7 a) 697 64. 564 59 | 665 60.05 
No English arg 63 4 1 13 2 6 .58 


By 1915 in the rural schools the work of the first grade was done 
exclusively in Spanish. English was taught as a special subject in 
grades two to four inclusive, fifteen minutes being devoted on an 
average to instruction in English.°® 

Such was the status of the language question after seventeen years 
of endeavor to adapt a system of education based on American 
methods. Such was the status after many experiments, much trying 
and much rejecting here and there. In the meantime the language 
question had become the subject of controversy among school people 
and even politicians. Many school people felt that the bilingual 
system as developed was not rendering satisfactory results either in 
Spanish or in English. Many trials and experiments were being 
conducted in the teaching of the two languages. Politicians availed 
themselves of the opportunity to attack the scheme of education in 
force as “‘an insidious attempt to eliminate Spanish, the thin, entering 
wedge calculated to destroy the personality of the people of Porto 
Rico.” The whole controversy was centered on how much time 
should be devoted in the schools to each language, how far should 
Spanish be the medium of instruction and how far English. 

First Attempt to Study the Language Question. In 1915, Dr. Paul 
G. Miller returned to Porto Rico as Commissioner of Education. 
He conducted a series of educational tests in the elementary schools 
to ascertain the efficiency of the school system. Mr. José Padin, 
then general superintendent, availed himself of this opportunity to 
make a study of the English of the pupils of the eighth grade who had 
had all their schooling under the bilingual system. The result was 
a bulletin published by the Department of Education entitled: “The 
Problem of Teaching English to the People of Porto Rico.” 


8[bid., 1912, p. 248. %Ibid., 1915, p. 343. Ibid. 


Special Subjects 223 


The aim of the study as expressed by the author was: 


Due to the fact that both English and Spanish are used in the elementary graded 
system as the medium of instruction and that the relative amount of time which should 
be devoted to each language is a much disputed question, it was deemed advisable to 
examine the papers written by the eighth-grade pupils to find out the quality of 
English which they have acquired after eight years of training under the teaching plan 
now in force and to try to discover whether the results of this teaching, as revealed in 
the papers, justify a readjustment of the present bilingual plan of instruction. The 
data contained in the papers examined are specially valuable because the students now 
enrolled in the eighth grade have received practically their entire school education 
under the bilingual plan of instruction in force. These pupils represent the finished 
product of the bilingual scheme of instruction. The quality of English which they can 
write may be taken as typical of the best that can be acquired under the plan in use.!4 

The most common mistakes found in all the papers examined, classi- 
fied under nine heads, were as follows: 

1. Misuse of nouns and adjectives, such as: ““We can be liberty,” 
‘a nation is progress, . .. ,° Also common mistakes in the use of 
some, any, anything, much, many, few, little, etc. 

2. Irregular plurals, such as: ‘“‘mens,’’ “childrens,”’ etc. 

3. Division of words into syllables, such as: “‘who-le,’’ ““becau-se,” 
*‘go-ods,”’ ““ma-de,”’ ete. 

4. Inflection of the adjective in number, such as: “importants 
things,” “‘others things,’ “goods lands,” etc. 

5. Comparison of adjectives, such as: ‘“‘the soldiers are as better 
as the lawyers,” “‘more deeper,” “more larger,” “as largest,’’ etc. 

6. Use of pronouns, such as “She (San Juan) can be the capital,”’ 
‘‘soldiers have his breakfast,” “‘the newspapers can say anything 
he wants,” “all body have a person that rules upon him,” “they had 
to work to maintain himself,” etc. A remarkable passage was_ the 
following: ‘‘I think that if your rich we should be happy because a 
person that have money they can do everything they wanted and 
because he spent all the money they have and no body can said 
nothing.” 

7. Use of the auxiliary verbal forms, “do,” “does,” “did,’’ such 
as: “If they does not work,” ‘“‘does not means,” “he do not put,” 
“did not saved him,”’ etc. 

8. Use of the verb, such as: “he would spends,” “to made,” “‘we 
must said,’ “those who becomes rich lives in good conditions,” 
‘‘a teacher, a doctor, a lawyer and a merchant has to work,” “will 
engaged in agriculture,” “‘to remained,” “we can saw,” etc. The 


99 66 99 66 


99 66 


1Padin, José, op. cit., p. 5. 


294 Education in Porto Rico 


errors found in the idiomatic usage of such verbs as to be, to do, to 
make, ete., are too numerous to mention. 

9. Tense sequence, such as: “‘if it was not true we shall come to 
school,” “if we don’t work it can be,”’ “if [should be rich I am always 
thinking in money,”’ etc.” 

The majority of these errors can only be appreciated by a person 
who knows both languages. Some of them would be impossible to 
an American child, but not so with a child whose vernacular is Spanish, 
and who hears English only in the class room and many times incor- 
rectly. 

Causes for Failure in the Teaching of English. In searching for 
causes that would produce such results, which were an indictment of 
the bilmgual system in force, Mr. Padin attributes the failure to 
three causes: first to poor teaching; second to the fact that the method 
in operation was psychologically wrong, and third, he places all the 
responsibility on those who imposed the method and attempted to 
teach English to the Porto Rican child as it is taught to the American 
children.” He summarizes his investigation thus: 

Results show that, in regard to the acquisition of English, the bilingual plan breaks 
down in the elementary graded schools. The evidence examined shows that the prob- 
able cause of this failure lies in the misconception of the method and material best 
suited to teach English to non-English speaking children who are studying at the same 
time their mother-tongue. This conception is revealed in the attempt to teach English 
to the Porto Rican children as if it were their mother-tongue, without regard to the 
fact that they live in a non-English environment, and utilizing the advantages which 
accrue to the children from linguistic training in their native language. Because of 
this misconception, a great many things are taken for granted, others are unduly em- 


phasized and still others, which should demand the closest attention, entirely over- 
looked. 

To remedy this evil it is recommended that the course of study to teach English be 
revised along the following lines: (a) Elimination of reading as the main object and 
substitution therefor of a plan in which conversation and written expression receive the 
chief emphasis; (b) the teaching through Spanish of all rules of punctuation, capitali- 
zation and whatever is common to both languages, because Spanish is the medium 
which offers the least resistance to the effective mastery of these things; (c) special 
attention to peculiar English idioms and structure; that is, to those features which 
make this language difficult for Spanish speaking children." 


Present Language Policy. As the result of this study and recom- 
mendations, since 1917, Spanish has been used as the medium of 
imstruction in the four lower grades, and English taught as a special 


2For details of the investigation see Padin, José: The Problem of Teaching English 
to the People of Porto Rico. 
3Padin, José, op. cit., pp. 17-20. M47bid., pp. 25-26. 


Special Subjects ao 


subject. The transition from Spanish to English is made in the 
fifth and sixth grades, and in the two higher grades, English is the 
medium of instruction while Spanish is taught as a special subject. 
In the rural schools the language of instruction is Spanish, except in 
the consolidated rural schools having higher grades, where the plan 
is the same as that of urban schools.” 

Instead of teaching children to read English beginning with the 
first grade, oral English is taught in the first and second grades and 
formal reading is deferred until the third grade. As far as the ex- 
periment has been tried, results seem encouraging. The shifting 
from conversation to reading as the medium to begin the study of 
English, gives the pupils an oral vocabulary before they begin formal 
reading, thus putting the Porto Rican child nearer to the level of the 
American child who hears four to five years of English before reading.'® 
Nevertheless the Porto Rican child still has the handicap of his Span- 
ish environment, in addition to the fact that he is learning two 
languages at the same time. 

The teaching of oral English with texts specially prepared for the 
purpose has been made possible by the work of Mr. Joseph Morin, 
for some time supervisor of schools and at the present time general 
superintendent. He has prepared two teachers’ manuals for first 
and second grades, and a beginner’s reader for the third grade. These 
texts are the result of years of experience and trial in the class 
room. They are a product of the schools and all the content 
deals with situations familiar to the children. Due care is given 
to pronunciation which is very hard for people of Spanish speech to 
master. This is still more difficult when one takes into account 
the fact that English in the lower grades is taught by Porto Rican 
teachers whose mother-tongue is Spanish and the majority of 
whom have never been outside of the Island. Other particular 
subjects specially hard for Porto Rican children are emphasized and 
plenty of drill exercises provided. 

English After Twenty-four Years of American Occupation. At the 
end of twenty-four years of American occupation in Porto Rico, and 
twenty-two years since the present system of public instruction was 
begun, it is fair to confess that the schools have not made the prog- 
ress in English that had been expected. The people of the Island 
are far yet from being a bilingual people. In the cities English is 
quite generally spoken, but the country masses do not know enough 


Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 563. 6 Ibid. 


226 Education in Porto Rico 


English for any practical purpose, and they never will until the rural 
schools offer a course which will assure the acquisition of English. 
Four years in the rural school, being taught in Spanish with English 
as a special subject, give a mere vocabulary which the child forgets 
soon after he leaves school. ‘That accounts mostly for the fact that 
to-day after twenty-four years of American occupation only ten 
per cent of the people over ten years of age can speak English.” 

There is no doubt that too much reliance has been placed on the 
importation of culture, in adapting more than in creating, but the 
best culture is that which although influenced by many currents is 
manufactured on the native soil and by the native people. Past mis- 
takes can not be undone, but they can serve as experience to profit 
by. 

Emphasis on Spanish To-day. With the emphasis on the study 
of English the teaching of Spanish has not been neglected and since 
1914 it has received a decided impetus. Since the above year, the 
office of General Superintendent of Spanish has been maintained in 
the department of education. This officer gives all of his time to 
the supervision and improvement of the teaching of the vernacular. 
The people of Porto Rico speak better Spanish to-day than during 
the Spanish régime and this language is being better taught to-day 
than at any other period in the history of the Island. 


B. ManvuauL TRAINING 


Industrial Schools. The first type of school work requiring manual 
activity was attempted in San Juan in 1903, in the so-called industrial 
school. Subsequently other schools of the same nature were estab- 
lished in Ponce, Mayagiiez, Arecibo and Guayama, appropriation 
being made by the Legislature during the five-year period from 1903 
to 1907, when support was discontinued, the schools closed and their 
property disposed of. As much as these schools were needed, the 
schools were not successful owing to lack of specially trained teach- 
ers to take charge of instruction, and to lack of appreciation and 
understanding of industrial education on the part of the people and 
legislators.}8 

Manual Training After 1907. After the failure of the industrial 
schools in 1907, the Island was left entirely without provision for any 


Fourteenth Census of the U. S., 1920. Bulletin, Population, Porto Rico, p. 13. 

18For a detailed account of these schools the reader is referred to the reports of the 
Commissioner of Education for the five-year period, 1903-1907, and especially the 
reports for the last two years named. 


Special Subjects 227 


form of manual instruction in the public schools. With no appro- 
priation providing specifically for such work it was impossible to 
accomplish much in the teaching of manual training. For a time 
such work as was done, goes to the credit of some teachers here and 
there, who having special aptitude and bent for construction work 
in wood, received encouragement from the department and devoted 
some time during school hours to the work of the manual arts. They 
did not stop with what is commonly called manual training, but also 
constructed various articles out of such native products as bamboo 
and various fiber products. 

In addition to this semi-official work, the regular work of manual 
training began to gain in popularity in 1910, and during the school 
year, there were regular manual training shops in operation in con- 
nection with the schools of nine towns with about 500 pupils receiving 
instruction. In Rio Piedras the boys built a two-room house for 
carpenter shops and domestic science room, and made their own 
tables, besides other articles for the use of the school. In another 
town playground apparatus was built, repairs were made in school 
buildings and a fence constructed and put in the plaza. A further 
indication of the interest in this field of work was the fact that in 
1911, in the summer institutes for teachers, there were forty-eight 
students enrolled in the manual training classes. 

From these indications, showing that the sentiment was sufficiently 
strong to warrant more decided steps in this direction, the department 
of education made some provision to introduce the study of manual 
training in the new course of studies for the continuation schools, 
and a special teacher experienced in teaching this subject was 
assigned to each continuation school, leaving opportunity for as many 
boys as could be accommodated'from the elementary schools to receive 
instruction.!® The work grew the next year and some sort of manual 
training was offered in sixteen school districts, 758 boys receiving 
the advantages of such instruction. Although the regular work of 
manual training was generally limited to the seventh, eight, ninth 
and tenth grades, yet the lower grades did some work in manual 
arts such as clay modeling of fruits and dishes, and made articles of 
straw and fibers.”° 

Manual Training a Subject in the Curriculum of the Graded Schools. 
In 1912, Mr. E. M. Bainter was appointed Commissioner of Educa- 
tion. He was a specialist in vocational and prevocational education 


19Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1911, p. 189. °Ibid., 1912, p. 224. 


228 Education in Porto Rico 


and gave the first real impetus to manual training, home economics and 
agriculture as subjects in the regular curriculum, so that beginning 
with the autumn term in 1913, manual training was given a place 
in the curriculum of the urban schools, and made obligatory for all 
boys enrolled in grades six to ten inclusive in those towns where the 
number of pupils in the grades mentioned warranted the equipping 
of a shop and the assignment of a special teacher to handle the work. 
Complete equipment for the instruction in wood working was bought 
by the school boards of forty-nine towns, and the department ap- 
pointed fifty-three teachers who had received special training in this 
line. Thirty-one of these were assigned to the upper grades of the 
elementary school and twenty-two to the continuation schools. 

An average of 3,181 boys were enrolled in the manual training 
classes throughout the year. A general supervisor of manual train- 
ing was appointed who prepared a course of study for the different 
grades, and in addition to the working out of the different projects 
stipulated, the pupils in many instances constructed furniture for 
the rural schools, repaired school property, and constructed manual 
training shops from plans prepared by the general supervisor, the 
school boards paying only for the material employed in the construc- 
tion. Three periods of fifty minutes each week were given in the 
grades, and five periods of fifty minutes each per week in the contin- 
uation schools. Thus manual training was established in the curric- 
ulum and became very popular with the boys. The next year it 
was continued with success, 3,033 boys having had instruction, dis- 
tributed as follows: High schools, 487; continuation schools, 518; 
eighth grade, 1,029; seventh grade, 694; and sixth grade, 305.” 

Manual Training in the Rural School Curriculum. So far manual 
training had been confined to urban centers, but in 1916 two con- 
solidated rural schools offered it for the first time in the country 
districts.” 

During the war the instruction in manual training was badly handi- 
capped due to the general restless condition, to many war activities 
which required a great deal of time, and especially due to the fact 
that one-half of the teaching force entered the service of the United 
States as either officers or soldiers. With the establishment of normal 
conditions, instruction in this subject has received its place again in 


*1Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1914, p. 363. 
2Ibid., 1915, p. 332. 
8Ibid., 1916, p. 357. 


Special Subjects 229 


the curriculum as a study firmly established, and it is being extended 
in the elementary school as means and circumstances allow. 

Prevocational Education for Boys. After the failure of the indus- 
trial schools, outside of the special subjects in the curriculum no pre- 
vocational preparation of any kind was given until recent years. 
From the manual training classes many boys have gone into car- 
pentry, so that their school training was in some measure prevoca- 
tional, but that had not been the general aim of the instruction in 
manual training. Thus far, there is only one public school in Porto 
Rico, the aim of which is “to give boys in the upper grades such indus- 
trial training as may fit them for a vocational career.” The training 
may lead through an apprenticeship to the position of foreman or 
factory superintendent, or through further technical training to va- 
rious fields of engineering.* This school is the Baldorioty de Castro 
Graded and Technical School. As the name implies it is a public 
graded school, offering advantages for prevocational training. 

The course has been so arranged that boys in the seventh grade 
get an opportunity to acquaint themselves with the various types of 
occupations offered by the school. An effort is made to ascertain the 
natural abilities of the students, acquainting them with the charac- 
ter of the work available in industry, observing their shortcomings 
and aptitudes and discovering their limitations of mind and body. 

At the end of the first year, the boys and the parents are consulted, 
and based on the reports of the teachers a selection of one of the 
courses offered is made. After the particular course has been selected, 
the boys specialize therein during the eighth and ninth grades, ex- 
tending this study by related work in mechanical drawing, mathe- 
matics and academic subjects. Every instructor in the school has 
had an actual trade experience and is a specialist in his line. All 
shop work is done according to trade standards, by actual trade pro- 
cesses and approved methods of the commercial shop.2> The school 
is new and in its period of formation. It is well equipped and should 
prove of great value in preparing boys for an actual occupation in 
life. The Island is in need of more schools of this type, but owing to 
their expense in equipment and administration it cannot afford many 
of them. 

C. Home Economics 


Home Economics After the Failure of the Industrial Schools. The 


—— 


4Ibid., 1920, p. 423. 5 Ibid. 


230 Education tn Porto Rico 


Spanish woman seems to possess an exceptional aptitude for needle 
work of any kind. Needle work had always constituted a regular 
study in the curriculum of the Spanish public schools. Such being 
the case during the Spanish régime, girls’ schools began as centers for 
religious instruction and needle work. With the change in sovereign- 
ty, the value of this work was not appreciated by the American 
authorities and it was eliminated from the course of study. Cooking 
was not taught in the Spanish schools. With the founding of the 
industrial schools, sewing and cooking were introduced as regular 
studies, but the failure of these schools eliminated this kind of in- 
struction from the public school system, not to take its place again 
as a required study until 1913. 

However, the natural aptitude of the Porto Rican woman for 
needle work, as well as the tradition that girls should be taught to 
sew, embroider and do drawn work in the schools, revived again this 
work and by 1909, in one district, classes in sewing were given in 
connection with the regular work of the graded schools. At the 
beginning of that school year, some of the lady teachers in the graded 
schools interested many of the older girls in the organization of a 
“School Girls Association.”’ As it was natural, general needlework 
developed into one of the main features of the Association. The 
classes were held on Saturdays, three hours in the forenoon and two 
in the afternoon. 

The girls were taught plain sewing, knitting, and needle lettering. 
The success of this Association interested the pupils and parents. 
In order to extend the work to other districts of the Island, the Com- 
missioner of Education notified the school boards that he would ap- 
prove small amounts as extra salaries for teachers who were competent 
and willing to teach sewing after school hours and on Saturdays.” 
The school boards responded so encouragingly to the suggestion of 
the Commissioner, that during the school year 1910-1911, a regular 
course in sewing was offered in fifty-six of the sixty-six towns of the 
Island at that time, and 5,241 girls or almost 76 per cent of those 
enrolled in the grades of the schools in which sewing was offered 
took advantage of the instruction. 

In many places where the work was started so many girls enrolled 
that it was necessary to divide them into groups, each group receiving 
two or three lessons of one and a half hours duration each week. 
The groups met after regular school hours and on Saturday mornings. 


*6Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1910, p. 12. 


Special Subjects 231 


In many instances the school boards provided the equipment, while 
in others it was supplied by either the pupils or parents or both.” 
The course of study comprised graded work from the third to the 
eighth grades inclusive.?® 

Popularity and Establishment of Home Economics as a Subject of 
the Curriculum. In 1910, courses in cooking were offered to the girls 
in the high and grammar schools of San Juan. The course included 
lessons in the hygiene of cooking and digestibility of the different 
kinds of food. The girls were taught to set a table and how to wait 
on guests.?® Instruction was continued the next year and extended 
to Rio Piedras, Juncos, and Yauco. The total enrollment for the 
year was 159.3° The attitude of the general public was very favor- 
able, and the department appointed a teacher of cooking and sewing 
to each continuation school and made instruction in these subjects 
obligatory in these schools.* 

The next school year witnessed great progress in the instruction 
of sewing and cooking. Although two school boards were not able 
to continue their support to the sewing classes, 54 towns offered work 
to over 5,000 girls, who were found in all grades from first to tenth 
inclusive. The classes were held as a rule after school hours and 
Saturday forenoons. The work by this time had extended beyond 
plain sewing, and among the articles made could be found all sorts 
of articles of daily use, such as slippers, handkerchiefs, pillow-cases, 
dresses, waists, table covers, napkins, laundry bags, hand bags, book 
covers, night-gowns, aprons, corset covers, doilies, laces, embroidery, 
sheets, drawn-work, kimonos, cushions, brush-holders, etc.*? 

The cooking classes also progressed, instruction being offered in 
13 municipalities with an enrollment of 361. With the exception of 
San Juan, the local boards furnished the equipment. Some munici- 
palities offered instruction in the sixth, seventh and eighth grades 
while it was required only in the ninth and tenth grades.* The next 
year fourteen towns offered instruction in cooking with an enrollment 
of 445, while 63 offered sewing with an enrollment of 6,329.*4 

The pupils and the general public were interested, the school boards 
responded with their support. The girls were becoming proud that 
they could cook and many parents bought ovens and special cooking 


27Tbid., 1911, pp. 189-191. 28Tbid., 1911, p. 192. 
29Thid., 1910, p. 11. 

30Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1911, p. 192. 
17 bod. 32[bid., 1912, p. 225. 

38Ibid., p. 226. 47 bid., 1913, p. 337. 


232 Education in Porto Rico 


utensils in order that their daughters might make at home the things 
they had learned at school. The time was ripe to introduce home 
economics as a required subject in the course of study. A supervisor 
of home economics was appointed who prepared a course in cooking 
and sewing. Monthly bulletins were published and sent to the special 
teachers in home economics with specific instructions as to what 
should be done each day. 

The subjects of health and sanitation as applied intimately to the 
home; the care of children and invalids; the proper feeding of children 
and adults; ventilation, cleanliness in the matter of person, clothing, 
and house; preparation and serving of foods, as well as the manner 
in which they are obtained, sold, and distributed; the manufacture 
of cloth, beginning with the more primitive methods, the proper 
selections of materials for garments for different purposes; colors, 
their combination and harmony; a small amount of work in textiles, 
and their manufacture; and the making of garments for outer wear, 
were all taken up during the year.* Instruction in home economics 
was made obligatory for all girls enrolled in the sixth to the tenth 
grades inclusive in the urban centers. Cooking was taught three 
days a week and sewing two days, five periods of fifty minutes each 
being devoted to this work each week in the grades as well as in the 
continuation schools. 

The Teaching of Home Economics During the War. Home econom- 
ics has been a required study in the curriculumsincethen. Instruction 
in this subject has been extended in some places, while in others, 
chiefly the small towns where there have not always been enough 
pupils, it has been discontinued temporarily. Owing to changed 
living conditions during the war the course of study in practical cook- 
ing was changed entirely. Since it was feared that communication 
with the mainland might be interrupted at any moment, thus de- 
priving the Island of its weekly food supply from New York, bulletins 
were prepared to instruct students and their families in preparing a 
diet that would make use of local food products.*’ 

This furnished a good opportunity to study the native food prod- 
ucts and to adapt the school course in cooking to local food problems. 
Mothers’ classes were given once a week, where the use of wheat 
substitutes and war-time menus were studied. Such extension work 


8 Ibid., 1914, pp. 363-64. 
36Tbvd. Compare also 1915 Report, p. 332. 
37Tbid., 1918, p. 516. 


Special Subjects 233 


was carried on by means of lectures and demonstrations by the 
teachers of home economics in some rural districts. An oven made 
from a five-gallon oil can was shown with a view to promote baking 
and decrease frying. Bread substitutes were taught and gardening 
encouraged.*®> The sewing classes studied the change produced in 
clothing problems during the war. Clothing conservation was taught 
as well as the purchase of durable clothing and the elimination of 
unessentials such as laces, ribbons, dress trimmings and jewelry; 
pajamas and refuge garments, bandages and other hospital articles 
were made and sent. to the Red Cross. 

New Course of Study in Home Economics. In 1919, Miss Elsie Mae 
Willsey was appointed special supervisor of home economics. She 
has prepared a new course of study in home economics for the elemen- 
tary and high schools,*® and has given a new impetus to the work. 
Before its publication the course was tried in the schools, five hours 
per week being devoted to home economics all through the year. 
The study of foods, clothing and household management was taken 
up. Special emphasis was given to the food values of native foods 
and to the selection and preparation of them. As far as possible the 
products of the school gardens were utilized. In the clothing and 
textile work, the aim was centered on giving the pupils work to meet 
present-day need, including designing and making of garments for 
the pupils and members of their families, with special stress on the 
selection and designing of material. In the course in household 
management, in addition to the work ordinarily given, special em- 
phasis was put on home laundering and the pupils laundered each 
article made in the clothing class before taking it home.*° 

The present course in home economics, besides the work in cooking 
and sewing, includes instruction in Porto Rican lace, millinery, menu 
making, marketing, home hygiene and care of the sick with infant 
and invalid dietetics, house planning and furnishing, house sanitation 
and household management. As arranged to-day, the work is special- 
ly prepared for the two upper grades of the elementary school and 
the first three years of the high school. With the rearrangement of 
the school system and the adoption of the 6-3-3 plan, now under 
consideration, instruction in home economics will become to a great 
extent the work of the Junior High School. 


387 bid., p. 517. 

39Willsey, Elsie Mae: Course of Study in Home Economics for the Elementary and High 
Schools of Porto Rico. 

49Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1920, p. 422. 


234 Education in Porto Rico 


Prevocational Work for Girls. Although many girls have left the 
schools and because of their training in sewing, dressmaking, lace 
making and millinery have been able to make a living, yet the general 
courses in home economics offered at the schools have not been given 
with the prevocational idea foremost, but rather to teach right stand- 
ards of utilization and consumption, and to establish effective powers 
of working or performing productive functions in the home.*! Not- 
withstanding, dressmaking, lace making, drawn work and embroid- 
ery have been occupations of many women and girls for many years. 
There was no market for their articles during the Spanish régime but 
they would sell to the wealthier classes. With the American occupa- 
tion and the opening of the Island to tourists, a market began to 
open. The American teachers have bought many of these native 
articles and have sold them in the States. Many of them have 
acted as agents for some firm in the North. Corporations in the 
States have sent their agents all over the Island to buy as much of 
these articles as possible. 

In 1915 the supervisor of home economics, by direction of the de- 
partment of education, began to give some official attention to this 
nascent industry. A market was created in the States, and the em- 
broidering of ladies underwear was carried on extensively in many 
centers. The material to be embroidered was shipped to the Island 
from a firm in New York and the embroidered articles were returned 
for sale. Workers received pay varying with the quality and com- 
plexity of the work done.” 

Of late years there have been a number of firms engaged in the 
manufacture of hand-made articles, such as blouses, underwear, 
children’s garments, handkerchiefs and others. One of the problems 
which these firms had to solve was the preparation of skilled workers, 
expert in needle work, who do not only know how to do the work, 
but who comply with a certain standard. To meet the demands for 
skilled work in these lines and at the same time to prepare women and 
girls to be self-supporting, the legislature made provision in 1919 for 
twenty instructors in needle work, embroidery and drawn work. 
These instructors were assigned to municipalities where prospects for 
success seemed best. Ten municipalities engaged their own in- 
structors and financed the work. By double work on the part of in- 
structors, thirty-four centers enjoyed the advantages of this work 
and a total of 2,325 were enrolled during the year. Classes met from 


“1Willsey, op. cit., p. 3. “Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1917, p. 467. 


Special Subjects 235 


four to six on school days, and from nine to eleven, one to three, and 
three to five on Saturdays. Enrollment was opened to women and 
girls thirteen years of age or over.” 

The course of study was framed by Miss Willsey after conferences 
with manufacturers and includes problems of construction and dec- 
oration appearing in the respective articles manufactured. It aims 
first to prepare women and young women to earn a living, and second, 
to train expert workers to satisfy the increasing demands for workers 
in sewing and all kinds of needle work. At the end of the course if 
the work has been satisfactorily done the department grants a diploma 
of Graduate in Sewing, Embroidery and Drawnwork.“ 

Native Industries. The traveller in Porto Rico may meet any 
moment along the road or in the streets of the cities, the hat vendor, 
or the hammock vendor, or a boy selling brooms, or he may meet a 
man selling ropes or another man loaded with all sorts of articles, and 
on examining he would see strings of beads of different varieties; 
mats and carpets, straw hand bags, bead curtains, wooden toys of 
all sorts, spoons and kitchen utensils made of higtiera, palm leaf fans, 
etc. These constitute what is generally known in the Island as 
native industries. Many a poor peasant makes his living and sup- 
ports a family entirely from one or several of these industries. In 
many interior districts there is an absolute lack of gainful occupations 
and many people depend on these native industries to earn a little 
money wherewith to buy the necessities of life. The hat weavers 
can make a good living if they have an assured market for their 
product, and the same could be said of others of these industries. 

These articles are made from palm fiber, maguey, bejuco, ema- 
jagua bark, grasses, vines, bamboo, higiiera, raffia, cocoanuts and other 
materials, all of which but raffia can be secured in the Island. How- 
ever, as these industries are not established for exploitation, excepting 
hat weaving, no one exploits the source of raw material, and their 
success depends largely on the kind of raw material which may happen 
to grow in any particular region. 

For the last fifteen years, the schools have given some attention 
to these native industries. A good many of the small articles have 
been made in the lower grades and have furnished material for 
manual work. Many municipalities have held special classes after 
school hours in hat weaving. Special teachers have been employed 
here and there, but these industries have not been placed firmly on 


43Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1920, p. 422. “Willsey, op. cit. 


236 Education in Porto Rico 


a prevocational basis. It is not likely they will be placed on such a 
basis until adequate financial help can be secured to carry on the 
work, and a dependable source of raw material has been established. 

Nevertheless, instruction in these industries has been offered for 
the last seven years in several municipalities. In 1919-1920, 37 of 
the 76 municipalities offered some instruction in the native industries 
in a total of 323 class rooms. Instruction was given in hat, basket, 
mat and hammock weaving; and broom and rope making. The work 
was done outside of school hours and was voluntary on the part of the 
teachers. No credit was given as school work. In these classes lace 
and embroidery were also made.* Besides the lack of funds to carry 
on the work and the uncertain supply of raw material, prevocational 
courses in native industries will not be successful until special teachers 
are trained for the work, the products standardized and a dependable 
market provided. Notwithstanding, these native industries furnish 
ample field for the extension of prevocational education. 


D. AGRICULTURE 


Sufficient data have already been given to show that Porto Ricois 
for the most part a rural community, and that the majority of the 
children of school age in the Island live in the country. Without 
doubt the subject of agriculture comes closer to the actual needs of 
the masses than any other in the school curriculum. Porto Rico is 
an agricultural island, and the teaching of agriculture in the schools 
is an economic and sociological necessity if the masses are to live 
rather than merely exist. The great majority of the laborers are 
employed in the cultivation of sugar cane, coffee, tobacco and fruits. 
Their wages are low and their families are large. In addition to low 
wages, any one acquainted with the facts knows that the laborers do 
not always work the whole day, that strikes are frequent and that 
the extent of unemployment and suffering during the dull seasons is 
tremendous. 

The high price of sugar and tobacco during the war, and the draft 
which called to the colors several thousand laborers, remedied the 
wage problem somewhat, but the demobilization and the decrease in 
price of sugar and tobacco after the war left the laborers in a worse 
estate than before. The best way to help these people is by teaching 
them to get the most out of the soil, and the only way to reach them 


46Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1920, pp. 424-25. 


Special Subjects 237 


is through the public schools, where they can be taught to improve 
their economic conditions by interest in and work on the soil. 

The Agricultural Rural Schools. Instruction in agriculture was 
first given in what was called the agricultural rural schools. They 
were originally designed to offer besides the elementary school curric- 
ulum, instruction iv the cultivation of the soil and the raising of the 
ordinary vegetables and farm products and experimentation in the 
scientific cultivation of plants in which the agricultural community 
im the neighborhood of the school might be interested. It was the 
intentiou that the work should be done by the pupils themselves, and 
that the work accomplished might have value not merely as an object 
lesson to the community, but also in the intellectual development of 
the pupils and in their preparation for their future careers.“ These rural 
schools were organized on thesame general lines as the common rural 
schools only that they had at least one acre of land around the school 
building available for purposes of practical cultivation. Due to the 
fact that there were no teachers prepared to teach in them and there 
was no special equipment for them, the schools did not have a good 
beginning. Nineteen were started altogether in different parts of 
the Island but some of them were soon changed into the regular 
common rural schools. They continued for several years and every 
year the regular common school work crowded out more and more 
the special feature for which they were established when at last they 
were merged into the rural school system and special mstruction in 
agriculture was introduced into the regular elementary school curric- 
ulum. 

The Teaching of Agriculture After the Failure of the Agricultural 
Rural Schools. On the failure of these schools, in order not to drop 
entirely from the curriculum the subject of agriculture, six special 
teachers of this subject were appointed and a plan was formulated 
by which the teachers of agriculture gave forty-five minute classes 
daily to all pupils enrolled in the graded system of the towns to which 
they were assigned from the third grade up; and aside from this two 
hours or more weekly for actual field work.*” Although the work was 
limited to a few municipalities, it was a success, over 1,200 pupils re- 
ceiving instruction in agriculture, practical work in school gardening 
being conducted hand in hand with the theoretical work. 

The success was such that plans began to be formulated immediate- 


“Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1902, p. 19. 
s7Ibid., 1910, p. 11. 


238 Education in Porto Rico 


ly for the extension of instruction in this subject. The two main 
difficulties in extending the work for the next year were the im- 
possibility to secure teachers competent to give instruction and the 
budgetary limitations. Due to the latter, only five teachers of 
agriculture could be appointed for the academic year 1910-1911, but 
the enrollment was higher than the year before, showing the interest 
in the work.*® The budget for the next school year made provision 
for ten special teachers of agriculture, but owing to a lack of trained 
men available for this work, only seven appointments were made. 
They devoted their time teaching pupils of both graded and rural 
schools, holding conferences and classes for teachers, conducting 
public meetings in the country and arousing interest in agriculture 
in their respective districts.* 

Agriculture as a Subject of the Curriculum. The time was ripe for 
introduction of this subject into the curriculum, but there were not 
teachers specially prepared to teach it. With the end in view of 
preparing teachers of agriculture, the commissioner of education for 
the United States and the commissioner of education for PortoRico 
in consultation at Washington decided that it was highly desirable to 
hold a series of one-week institutes throughout the Island for the 
purpose of giving instruction in agriculture to teachers iv the rural 
and graded schools. The plan contemplated closing the schools in 
a given district for one week, assembling the teachers in a convenient 
central point, and requiring their attendance at the exercises of the 
institutes. This was put into effect for two years, with institutes in 
thirty-five districts the first year and in forty-one districts the second. 

The institutes were discontinued in 1913 not because they were not 
successful, but because it meant that 150,000 pupils enrolled in the 
public schools were out of school one week in the year. Besides, 
teachers wishing to prepare to teach agriculture had plenty of oppor- 
tunity to do so in the College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, 
already in operation. As a result of this agricultural propaganda, 
the special preparation of teachers and the aid by budgetary provi- 
sion, the subject of agriculture was given a place in the elementary 
school curriculum in 1913, to be required of all boys enrolled in grades 
sixth, seventh and eighth of the graded schools, two days a week, 
with the special teacher of agriculture giving the instruction. The 
teacher devoted the other three days a week to the supervision of the 
work in agriculture in the rural schools. Forty-one teachers of agri- 


48Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1911, p. 186. 49Tbid., 1912, p. 210. 


Special Subjects 239 


culture were appointed for the entire calendar year at a salary of 
$75 a month.®° With the extension of the instruction in agriculture 
provision was made at the Insular Normal School for the preparation 
of teachers.*! The work functioned very successfully for a year.” 

Agricultural Instruction During the War. But this was only tem- 
porary, for the next academic year opened with the forty-one special 
teachers eliminated from the budget. This meant the elimination 
also of agriculture as a required subject in the urban schools, except 
in those centers where teachers took special interest and desired to 
do something after school hours. In twenty towns instruction in 
agriculture was carried on spasmodically and reports state that 807 
pupils were given some instruction in this subject during the war. 
Agricultural instruction, although a required subject in the curriculum, 
went back to its former status after the failure of the agricultural 
schools. 

However, circumstances now were quite different from those of 1908- 
1909. ‘There were now teachers prepared to teach agriculture, and all 
rural teachers had had some instruction in the subject. Besides, the 
World War created special problems of food conservation. High prices 
and fear of lack of food supplies from the continent turned the attention 
of the people to the soil, which was cultivated and planted with native 
food crops. The department took advantage of these conditions 
and started itsrural campaign. The rural teachers became interested 
in the work of rural uplift. They turned their attention to agri- 
culture and the cultivation of home and school gardens. Ten 
special teachers of agriculture were appointed in 1916, who worked 
in co-operation with the special agents of the food commission. 

All during the war, attention was centered on practical agriculture 
and work was carried on in every school that had land available for 
demonstration plots. Girls as well as boys were taught to cultivate 
home gardens and many women teachers were as successful in teach- 
ing gardening as the men. Necessity made the teaching of agri- 
culture not only successful but practical. 

Instruction in Agriculture Today. After the war the budget was 
increased so that instruction in agriculture could be resumed. In 
1919, forty special teachers of agriculture were appointed, and the 
same number was continued for 1920-1921. Besides the work of 


‘°Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1913, p. 335. *Lbid., p. 336. 
Compare Report of 1914, p. 362. 
8Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 553. 


240 Education in Porto Rico 


teaching in the urban schools, they devoted part of their time to the 
instruction of other teachers. Speaking of their duties and work, 
the Commissioner of Education reported that they were in charge 
of the school and home garden movements in their respective dis- 
tricts. They assisted in obtaining a satisfactory enrollment and main- 
taining attendance and were the leaders in the rural uplift movement, 
assisting teachers in organizing conferences among country people. 
They also acted as intermediates between farmers and the Insular and 
Federal experiment stations. In one district vanilla slips were dis- 
tributed and the people were instructed how to cultivate the plant, 
and cure the beans, resulting in the establishment of an industry which 
promises to be very profitable. In several municipalities farmers 
have been encouraged to plant soy beans which have been used instead 
of the more expensive oil protein food imported from the States. 

The people of Porto Rico have been very careless in animal breed- 
ing, and now the teachers of agriculture are taking some interest in 
this line. They are helping the children to form pig and poultry clubs 
and have aided the farmers in procuring better breeds of pigs and 
poultry than those commonly found. The teachers are also helping 
the small farmer financially. Porto Rico banks charge a high per 
cent of interest. Some teachers have helped in establishing co- 
operative societies and securing loans of money at a lower interest 
than usual. The agricultural teachers are beginning to co-operate 
with the Department of the Interior in securing the necessary action 
to make operative the law covering the irrigation project. Thirty- 
six school fairs were held during 1919-1920 at which $3,246 were dis- 
tributed in prizes to teachers and pupils.* During the academic year 
1920-21 instruction in agriculture was given in 1,715 different class 
rooms, fifty school fairs were held, and 39,672 home gardens were culti- 
vated through the efforts of the school.® It is to be hoped that the 
present interest will continue, whatever the policies of the department 
of education may be in the future and that the school will do her full 
share in preparing the masses of future citizens to be self-supporting. 


E. Avuximrary EpucationaL AGENCIES 


Eatra-Curricular Activities. EExtra-curricular activities introduced 
into the public schools with the American occupation were a novelty 
to the people. Such activities were unknown in the Spanish schools. 


“Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1920, p. 424. 
%The Porto Rico School Review, Vol. 6, No. 1, Sept. 1921, p. 11. 


Special Subjects | 241 


These did not even have a period of recess during the daily session, 
much less games and other activities connected with the school. 
The work in Physical Education is carried on in connection with 
athletics as the climate permits outdoor sports all the year round. 

The first to introduce the idea of athletics into Porto Rico were the 
American soldiers. No sooner had they landed, unhitched their 
horses and mules and pitched their tents, than they were playing 
“catch,” and from this, if there was enough ground, a regular base- 
ball game would follow. As was natural it did not take long for the 
children to be playing ‘‘catch”’ also. They also began to improvise 
some sort of base-ball. As soon as games were introduced into the 
schools, base-ball became the favorite game among the children. But 
organized playground work as a policy of the department of education 
did not come until 1908. Prior to that the playground established 
in Ponce by the Playground Association of Porto Rico was the only 
one in the Island. 

The playground movement was welcomed by the municipalities and 
school boards generally cooperated in the movement, donating and 
buying land and providing funds for equipment. The movement. 
was such a success that by 1913 a general supervisor of playgrounds 
and athletics was appointed. He prepared a course in physical edu- 
cation, which was put into operation in September 1913 as an integral 
part of the school curriculum and required of all children. He had 
direct charge of all the work in physical culture given in all the schools, 
he was to supervise and encourage the development of the playgrounds 


Towns with Land set aside | Total Money Spent |Children using 
School Year Playgrounds | for Playgrounds | for Playgrounds, | Urban Play- 


1908—1915 1908—1915 grounds 
(Acres) 
1908-1909 yar | QA $3,000 5,000 
1909-1910 AS 50 8,250 15,000 
1910-1911 52 58 19,746 18,420 
1911-1912 58 59 30,737 23,902 
1912-1913 61 61% 43,209 26,564 
1913-1914 65 7234 54,538 29,008 
1914-1915 68 75% 59,982 34,01556 


56Ibid., 1915, p. 336. 


Q42 Education in Porto Rico 


movement in the different towns and direct all forms of athletics 
connected with the public school system.” 

The preceding table will show the growth of the movement and the 
increase from year to year until 1915 in the number of towns pro- 
viding playground facilities for children; the amount of land utilized 
for the purpose, the amount of money expended for the purchases of 
sites, equipment, etc., and the number of public school children mak- 
ing use of the facilities furnished. 

The following table shows the number of organized teams in the 
different branches of athletics: 


Base Ball Track Basket Ball Total 
Prior to 1913 44 18 Q 64 
1913-1914 55 98 97 110 


1914-1915 73 39 58 170.8 


Since 1910 there has existed an Interscholastic Athletic Association 
of Porto Rico, the membership of which is made up of the local asso- 
ciations of the different schools and towns. All the school athletics 
are directly in charge of the board of directors of this association. 
The constitution and by-laws are subject to the approval of the Com- 
missioner of Education.®? For the purpose of athletic contests, meets 
and interscholastic games, all the children in the public schools are 
divided into three classes. In class A, only pupils regularly enrolled 
in the high schools and in the departments of the University may 
take part. Under class B, only pupils enrolled in the eighth grade 
and lower grades are eligible to take part. Under class C, pupils en- 
rolled in any of the grades from the tenth downward in school systems 
which maintain continuation schools are allowed to enter.°° 

Due to the war, the decrease in the budget and the attention shifted 
to military drill, the position of special supervisor of athletics was 
eliminated in 1914, and since that time the work in physical education 
has been carried on by the regular teachers, who followed the course 
of study prepared by the former supervisor. This position has been 
revived for the year 1921-1922, and it is hoped that it will continue, 
that the prewar enthusiasm will be revived and that athletics will pre- 
serve its proper place in connection with the public school system. 
" "Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1913, p. 372. *8Ibid. ! 


59Tbid., 1912, p. 257. 
S°Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1910, p. 23. 


Special Subjects 243 


This branch of extra-curricular activities is very important in 
Porto Rico. Besides their physical value, group athletics have a 
special social value for any people and especially so for people of 
Spanish blood and traditions. The Spaniard is an individualist. 
Independently he can do anything within his ability, but as a rule he 
will not cooperate. He is not a good loser, but wants victory first, 
last and always. Group athletics in Porto Rico have developed 
cooperation, and team work among the children, respect for authority 
and for the rules of the game. At the same time the children are 
learning to be as good losers as winners and good sportsmen. 

Although base-ball is the favorite game, and anywhere one may go 
children and young men may be seen playing some form of the game, 
yet there are other popular games and sports, such as circle ball, 
straddle ball, circle wind or maze-without ball, prisoner’s base, line 
volley ball, basket ball, soccer and track and field sports. The inter- 
scholastic meet is an annual affair and any one from the continent 
witnessing one of these at the Hippodrome grounds in San Juan 
would not see much difference from like events in the North, while the 
enthusiasm, Latin in nature, generally runs higher than among Anglo- 
Saxon people. 

School Days and Festwals. During the Spanish régime there were 
many holidays and festivals due to the fact that the church holi- 
days were kept as well as the insular and national. On holidays 
schools would close, no entertainment of any kind being provided for 
the day unless church attendance was required. Since the Ameri- 
can occupation the holidays have furnished an opportunity for special 
study in the class room in preparation for the day. Such days as 
Washington’s and Lincoln’s birthdays, Memorial Day, have been used 
as the basis for the study of American ideals and patriotism. It is 
very easy for people of Spanish countries to celebrate anything, 
always being ready to make the most of an opportunity for a good 
time, easily throwing all their enthusiasm into whatever is to be 
celebrated. Such being the case the school holidays and celebrations 
are celebrated rot only by the children, but by the parents as well. 
A school celebration is a municipal celebration. Thus such events 
have furnished an excellent means of establishing closer relations be- 
tween the schools and the public. Exhibits of work done in the class 
room are usually displayed, giving the parents some idea of what is 
being done in school. Some of the days observed are: Washington’s 
Birthday, Lincoln’s Birthday, Mother’s Day, Armistice Day, Colum- 


Q44 Education in Porto Rico 


bus Day, Thanksgiving Day, Abolition Day, Memorial Day, Arbor 
Day. The usual programme for these celebrations consists of recita- 
tions, songs, speeches, both by the children and by citizens, street 
parades, short dramas, and concerts. At the close of the school 
year, commencement exercises have unusual significance in the life 
of the community and the most is made of the event in every 
community having a graduating class of any kind. 

School Bands. For the last twelve years school bands have been a 
special feature in many municipalities. They have not always been 
successful in all the municipalities, the number of municipalities 
having them varying from time to time, but as a general rule the 
school band movement has been very successful. The teachers and 
equipment have generally been provided by the local school officials, 
while many boys gifted in music have purchased their own instruments 
and pursued in part a musical career. Instrumental music plays a 
very important part in the social life of the Island, and nearly every 
town has a municipal band. In many towns the school bands have 
taken their place in the social life of their respective communities, 
thus many school boys have had an opportunity to earn some money. 
School bands furnish the music at school festivals, school exercises, 
teachers’ conferences, at meetings of parents’ associations and 
athletic meets. They also give evening concerts at the public 
plazas, while church festivals and funerals often call on them to 
furnish the music.*! 

Physical and Social Welfare. The one activity originating with 
the teachers in cooperation with citizens is the school lunch move- 
ment. As already mentioned, the greatest problem of Porto Rico is 
poverty. Thousands of children go to school undernourished, pale 
and anemic. It is impossible for these children to do satisfactory 
school work. The movement originated some ten years ago, but 
its growth has been very slow due principally to lack of funds. The 
growth has been made possible in recent years by the increased 
support of the municipalities together with that of the legislature. 
The latter appropriated $10,000 for the year 1919-1920, thus making 
possible a large increase in school lunches. Supervisors unanimously 
declare that the establishment of the school lunch rooms has_ been 
immediately followed by more regular attendance and greatly im- 
proved class-room work.” 


“Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 576. 
“Detailed account of School Lunch movement may be found in the reports of the 


Special Subjects Q45 


School Activities Connected With the Prosecution of theWar. Among 
the many activities of the schools connected with the prosecution of 
the war, such as the selling of War Savings and Thrift Stamps, and 
Liberty Bonds, and the activities of the Victory Boys and Junior 
Red Cross, the latter rendered excellent service during the war and 
has continued its activities. Of the Junior Red Cross the Com- 
missioner of Education has said:—‘“‘Aside from the rural campaign 
which has been carried on by the department in recent years, there is 
no other supplementary activity or agency connected with the edu- 
cational work that has attained the importance of the Junior Red 
Cross, and it deserves corresponding credit for the various lines of 
meritorious work performed.’ The Junior Red Cross was organ- 
ized in 1917, and immediately after its organization was called upon 
to help in the many civic and patriotic undertakings in which the 
schools took such a large part during the war. As soon as the Armis- 
tice was signed it prepared a peace programme which is being carried 
out with enthusiasm that characterized all its work during the war. 
The size of the organization and its activities have so increased since 
the war, that it has been necessary to employ a person to devote all 
of her time to the activities of the organization, under the official 
name of Executive Secretary. Her salary represents the only running 
expenses of the Chapter. 

“The Society is to-day stronger than ever and is planning for the 
future. At the invitation of the department of education and the 
Junior Red Cross, the Children’s Bureau of the U. 5. Department of 
Labor will carry on a Children’s Year Survey in Porto Rico. Matters 
pertaining to the health of the child as well as to the recreation and 
play will be given most attention. A Child Health Campaign will 
be launched in December, with a health week, inaugurated at the 
annual session of the Teachers’ Association. The Recreation and 
Playground movement will be launched this summer.’ As it will 
be seen in these data the Junior Red Cross has developed into a 
Child Welfare Organization and its work is most effective in such a 
large and needed child population as Porto Rico has. 


Commissioner of Education since 1917, and especially in the late reports which show 
the growth of the movement. 

Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1920. 

64For data dealing with the activities of the Junior Red Cross see The Porto Rico 
School Review, for Sept. 1921, pp. 40-47. 


246 Education in Porto Rico 


SUMMARY OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 


A perusal again of educational conditions in Porto Rico at the end 
of the Spanish dominion as presented in the first part of this work and 
a review of the progress made in two decades of American occupation 
would bring forth the contrast of what Porto Rico accomplished in 
education under the Spanish government in four hundred years and 
what she has accomplished in twenty years under the government of 
the United States. The writer can not improve upon the report of 
Dr. Paul G. Miller, recently Commissioner of Education to Porto 
Rico. Dr. Miller came to Porto Rico as a young manin1898. He 
saw conditions as they were then, and since has given the greater 
part of his services to the public schools of the Island. 

He reports to the Governor asfollows: “Complaints are occasionally 
made that the school system as at present organized does not fulfill 
its mission, that facilities are not available for many children of 
school age and that a comparatively small number are actually en- 
rolled in the schools. This charge is abundantly true, but the persons 
who make it are prone to forget the conditions that existed when the 
change in sovereignty occurred. Broadly speaking, at that time 
one child out of fifteen of school age attended school. During 1918- 
19 (twenty years after) facilities were available for one child out of 
three of school age. During the year ending June 1899, there were 
reported 212 town schools and 313 rural schools. There were 426 
rural barrios without any whatever, excluding the municipalities of 
Barranquitas, Ciales, Comerio, Maunabo, Ponce, Yauco and Utuado, 
for which the number was not reported. The last named municipal- 
ity included, at that time, Jayuya. Territorially speaking it is the 
largest in Porto Rico, and in 1899, with a population of 43,860, it 
had nine teachers and an attendance of only 262. In that muni- 
cipality alone there were reported 14,894 school children without 
school facilities. In Ponce where the number of barrios without any 
educational advantages was not available at that time, there were 
reported 11,563 children without school facilities, and in Yauco 
8,819. The enrollment for that year is reported as 19,804 boys and 
9,378 girls, a total of 29,182, but only 14,720 boys and 7,153 girls, or 
21,873 pupils, were reported to be in actual attendance. The total 
number of children between the ages of 4 and 16 years which was 
then the legal school age, who were without school accommodation, 
was reported as 268,630. The Federal Census Bureau estimated 


Special Subjects Q47 


the school population, that is, those between the ages of 5 and 18 
years, to be 434,381 in July, 1919. Of this number the total en- 
rollment was 160,381 or more than five and one-half times the number 
of children enrolled in 1899. The reader’s attention is invited to 
the comparative table, giving the number of teachers, the enroll- 
ment, the barrios without school in 1919, and the increase in teachers 
and pupils. No detailed statistics as to eprollment by municipalities 
were found in 1899 and consequently the number in actual attendance 
has been given in each case.’’® 

Appendix IX shows the results of four hundred years of Spanish 
elementary education in Porto Rico. The figures speak for them- 
selves. Nevertheless the work has just begun and the problem of 
popular education is still the great task to be accomplished. It is not 
only a problem of extensiov of school facilities but also a problem 
of adaptation to local aims and local needs. Elementary education 
in Porto Rico leaves much to be desired. A great deal has been done, 
and this has revealed what remains to be done. Much of the future 
depends on the support of public education, which in turn depends on 
the ability of the Island to increase her revenues for public education. 


®Report. of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, pp. 535-38. 


CHAPTER XIII 
SECONDARY, HIGHER AND PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 


The history of education in Porto Rico shows that, although 
elementary education was neglected, provision was always made for 
the education of the few in what might be called the secondary schools. 
History shows that at various times attempts were made to establish 
university studies. The idea of secondary and higher education 
was not new in the Island at the time of the American occupation, 
but the extension of education to reach the masses of the people was, 
if not new in theory, new in practice. It was hard for some people 
to understand that the establishment of elementary education should 
precede secondary education. 

So when Dr. Brumbaugh began to establish the public school 
system, placing the emphasis on the extension of elementary educa- 
tion he met severe criticism from a few people who wished higher insti- 
tutions of learning to be created before the elementary work was 
organized. Dr. Brumbaugh answered these critics that the greater 
need was to the larger number and pushed the elementary schools to 
the point of complete organization, giving the high school work only 
partial support. Outside of the Insular Normal School for the prepa- 
ration of teachers no support was given at first to collegiate and pro- 
fessional education. 

Definition of Secondary Education. Secondary education in Porto 
Rico, since its organization, includes that educational training given 
to pupils who have completed an eight-year elementary course or its 
equivalent. Itis givenin two types of schools, known as high schools 
and continuation schools. Historically the high school came first. 
The high school in Porto Rico is the same as the traditional high 
school in the United States, that institution offering a four-year 
course of study beyond the elementary school of eight grades. 

High School in San Juan. With the burning of the Model and 
Training School on July 1, 1900 no school facilities were left for pupils 


1Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1901, p. 61. 
(248) 


Secondary and Professional Education 249 


of high school standing. There were not very many of them, only a 
few American children, and some of the pupils of the former “‘Insti- 
tuto” who, according to Dr. Brumbaugh, were poorly prepared to do 
high school work.2, On November 1, 1900, the English and Graded 
School of San Juan was established in the Beneficencia building and 
besides kindergarten and eight grades of elementary school, high 
school work was offered’ and carried on in two divisions, covering a 
three-year course, the English and the Spanish. The pupils of the 
former came up through the grades of the English Graded School and 
those of the latter came up through the grades of the five elementary 
schools of the city. 

Other High Schools. The following year the Ponce high school was 
begun in connection with one of the graded schools. The eight grades 
which formerly constituted the so-called American school were taken 
over by this graded school and the first year of high school work was 
added. The pupils entering the ninth grade were the graduates from 
the eighth grade of the American school and from the Pujal Street 
graded school. Since all the pupils had come up from the elementary 
school and had been taught in English, all the work of the high school 
was begun in English, except the study of the Spanish language.* 
In 1904, San Juan graduated its first high school class, the first in 
Porto Rico. The same year high school work begar in Mayagtiez 
with the ninth grade, for the eighth grade pupils who had finished in 
the elementary schools of that city. The Island had now three 
high schools. The Fajardo high school had been authorized, but it 
had no students of high school grade.’ For some time these three 
high schools were the only secondary schools and pupils from other 
towns came to them for their high school work. 

Continuation Schools. Due to the fact that graduates from the 
eighth grade were increasing and that many of these wished to con- 
tinue their studies but were unable to do so since they were scattered 
all over the Island and could not all be brought to the three high 
schools maintained, the department of education began to establish 
“continuation schools” in some of the larger centers of population for 
the purpose of taking the pupils upon the completion of the common 
school course and carrying them ore, two or three years (geverally 
two), further in their educational career without the necessity of 


2Report of the Commissioner of Education of Porto Rico, 1901, p. 62. 
3Ibid., 1900, p. 21. 

4Ibid., 1903, p. 173. 

5Ibid., 1905, p. 12. 


950 Education in Porto Rico 


leaving home. Thus the continuation school began as an extension 
of the elementary school course and not separate from it. 

During the year 1909-1910, the first year of the continuation schools, 
eighteen schools were maintained, that is, eighteen municipalities 
offered the first or the first and second years of the high school course.® 
As soon as these schools were established a curriculum was formu- 
lated for them based principally upon manual training for boys and 
cooking and sewing for girls, but the academic studies of the regular 
high school course of study were pursued also, so that the pupils 
could enter any of the four-year high schools and receive full credit 
for the work done in the continuation schools. However, although 
emphasis is placed on these two studies the continuation schools 
are far from being prevocational or vocational schools and do not 
fit the students for specific vocation. They were established mainly 
to provide further study beyond the eighth grade. 

Continuation Schools Developed into High Schools. Since the es- 
tablishment of the continuation schools, the growth of secondary 
education has been rapid. These schools furnished a nucleus upon 
which to build high schools offering the four-year course of study. 
So it has happened that eight continuation schools have grown into 
high schools. That of Arecibo became a high school and graduated 
its first class in 1912.7 Humacao offered a four-year course in 1913.® 
Bayamén, Yauco, Guayama, Aguadilla, Fajardo and Caguas ad- 
vanced their continuation schools into high schools and offered a 
four-year course in 1916.2 This makes a total of eleven high schools, 
which is the number in operation to-day. Besides the high schools, 
the University of Porto Rico maintains a University High School in 
Rio Piedras and subcollegiate work in Mayagiiez. The number of 
continuation schools has varied from time to time, some being dis- 
eontinued upon lack of sufficient pupils. In 1920, there were eleven 
high schools with an enrollment of 2,687 pupils and twenty-two con- 
tinuation schools with an enrollment of 944 pupils. These engaged 
108 high school and 57 continuation school teachers. The eleven 
high schools graduated 399 students, 234 of these in the general course 
and 105 in the commercial course.’ 

The Courses of Study. The basis for admission to the high and 
continuation schools is the common school diploma received by all 


*Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1910, p. 8. 
"Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1912, p. 207. 

*Tbid., 1913; pH) S26; *Tbid., 1917, p. 464. 

10Tbid., 1920, p. 421. 


Secondary and Professional Education 251 


who satisfactorily complete the work of the eighth grade, but ad- 
mission may also be obtained by examination or by certificate from 
the schools of acknowledged standing. Since the general aim of the 
high schools has been to prepare for college, the course of study has 
been based on the college entrance requirements and has varied 
accordingly as these requirements have varied. In 1906, San 
Juan graduates were represented in Cornell, Princeton, Dickinson, 
and Rutgers; while Ponce graduates were to be found in Cornell, 
Syracuse, and University of Pennsylvania." 

In 1905, a commercial course was established in the three high 
schools in operation. The course offered two years in commercial 
subjects and at the end of the two years a commercial certificate was 
granted.” The courses of study continued the same with more or 
less changes until the fall of 1913, when the commercial course was 
increased to four years and at its completion a commercial high 
school diploma was granted.“ The high schools offered now two 
courses, a general course in preparation for college and a commercial 
course in preparation for business. With the exception of Spanish, 
which is taught as a subject, the official language of the high school is 
English. Both languages are mastered as far as possible and com- 
mercial students are prepared to work in both. Many graduates of 
the high schools of Porto Rico hold responsible positions in offices in 
New York and other parts of the United States where a knowledge 
of both Spanish and English is required. 

Buildings and Equipment. No special provision for high school 
buildings was made until 1913. Before that, high school work was 
conducted in the same buildings with graded schools or in rented 
buildings not at all fitted for the purpose, thereby considerably hamper- 
ing the work. The legislative assembly at its session of 1913 appro- 
priated the sum of $150,000, for the construction of four new high 
school buildings, one in San Juan, one in Ponce, one in Mayagtez 
and one in Arecibo, on condition that the school boards of these cities 
furnished the necessary sites and contributed a total of $90,000 
toward the construction and equipment of the buildings.“ Although 
the insular legislature did not appropriate any money for the high 
school building at Humacao, nevertheless the school board of that 
city purchased a tract of some three acres of land and obtained a 


Report of the Commisstoner of Education for Porto Rico, 1906, p. 97. 
Tighe 


13 Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1914, p. 360. “Ibid. 


252 Education in Porto Rico 


loan from the insular government. It immediately began con- 
struction on a thirty-five thousand dollar high school building," which 
was ready for occupancy September 1914. The Ponce building al- 
though not finished was ready to house the high school in January 
1915, and the Arecibo building was ready for September 1915. 

The expenditure of these buildings was as follows: Humacao, 
$33,100; Arecibo, $50,000; and Ponce, $150,000. In addition to 
this expenditure, the department fully equipped these buildings with 
the necessary furniture and laboratory apparatus, so that from a 
material standpoint the secondary schools were now for the first time 
in exceptionally good condition.’ The Mayagtez building was 
erected at a cost of $50,000 and was ready for use in 1917.6 How- 
ever six high schools have been added since and as they stand to-day 
comparatively few possess adequate housing facilities. Only the 
four named above occupy buildings specially constructed for the 
purpose. 

The Central High School in San Juan is still in temporary quarters, 
but plans are being formulated for the erection of a $400,000 building 
to accommodate 1,200 pupils. The Fajardo high school has been 
transferred to a building the gift of Dr. Santiago Veve. This building 
has been remodeled for the purpose. The high schools of Aguadilla, 
Bayamoén, Guayama, Yauco and Caguas are still grouped with gram- 
mar rooms in elementary school buildings. Only the four high schools 
with buildings are now adequately equipped. Some have rather 
meagre equipment, while others are not in a position to make use of 
more equipment because of lack of space.” 

Higher and Professional Education. 'The one institution offering 
higher and professional education is the University of Porto Rico. 
It was established by act of the insular legislature, approved March 
12, 1903, to “‘provide the inhabitants of Porto Rico as soon as possible 
with the means of acquiring a thorough knowledge of the various 
branches of literature, science and useful arts, including agriculture 
and mechanical trades, and with professional and technical courses in 
medicine, law, engineering, pharmacy, and in the science and art of 
teaching.’'8 The government of the University was “‘vested in a 
board of trustees composed of the Governor of Porto Rico as a member 
and its honorary president, the commissioner of education as a mem- 
"-BIbid., 1915, p. 325. I bid., 1917, p. 364. 

Ibid., 1919, p. 565. 


18The Law Establishing the University of Porto Rico. Report of the Commissioner 
of Education for Porto Rico, 1903, p. 251. 


Secondary and Professional Education 253 


ber and its president, the attorney-general, the secretary and the 
treasurer of Porto Rico as ex-officio members and six other members, 
one of whom shall be the speaker of the house of delegates, to be 
appointed by the governor of Porto Rico for a term of three years.’’!9 

The membership of the board was changed later to seven members 
composed of the Commissioner of Education, the treasurer of Porto 
Rico and the speaker of the house of representatives as members 
ex-officio, and four other members appointed by the Governor for 
an unlimited term of office. The Commissioner of Education is 
president of the board of trustees and Chancellor of the University. 
The immediate government of the University is entrusted to the 
Chancellor and the respective faculties.?° 

The law further provided that the University should consist of the 
following departments, to be organized in the order of their importance 
as soon as the necessary funds might be available: 

(1) “A normal department, to be known as the insular normal 
school, for the training of teachers in the subjects taught in the public 
schools of Porto Rico and to be supported by annual appropriation 
by the legislative assembly.”’ 

(2) “An agricultural and mechanical department, for the train- 
ing of teachers and for the promotion of agricultural and mechanic 
arts, to be maintained in conformity with an act of Congress approved 
August 30, 1890, being an act entitled, ‘An act to apply a portion of 
the proceeds of the public lards to the more complete endowment and 
support of the colleges for the benefit of agriculture and the mechanic 
arts, established under the provision of an act of Congress approved 
July 2, 1862,’ and the legislative assent required by section two of 
the act of Congress approved August 30, 1890, is hereby given and the 
conditions imposed by that act, as well as those imposed by the act 
of Congress approved July 2, 1862, are hereby accepted and imposed 
by this act upon the University of Porto Rico, and all moneys accru- 
ing thereunder are accepted under the conditions and terms in said 
acts named.” 

(3) “A department of the natural sciences and engineering.” 

(4) ‘“‘A department of liberal arts.” 

(5) “A department of medicine.” 


19The Law Establishing the University of Porto Rico. Report of the Commissioner 
of Education for Porto Rico, 1903, p. 251, Sec. 2. 

20The same law, Sec. 7., op. cit. p. 252, and the Annual Catalog and Announcement 
of the University of Porto Rico, 1921-22, p. 23. 


Q54 Education in Porto Rico 


(6) ‘A department of law.” 

(7) “A department of pharmacy.” 

(8) “A department of architecture.” 

(9) “A university hospital.”’ 

(10) “And such other departments germane to a well-equipped 
university as the board of trustees may from time to time be able to 
establish.’’! 

Of the above departments, the normal department, to-day the 
Normal College, was the first to be established and has already been 
considered fully in connection with the teaching profession. 

The College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. Directly in the 
rear of the grounds of the normal department, the department of 
education acquired a farm of about one hundred acres which was 
transferred to the University after its organization as the site of its 
college of agriculture, thus giving it a property of one hundred and 
twenty-three acres located at Rio Piedras, seven miles from the 
capital, San Juan.” The agricultural department of the University 
was organized in 1904, the first pupils being received February 3, 
1905.” 

In the spring of 1908, the board of trustees decided to discontinue 
instruction in agriculture for the academic year, and devote its 
energies to the development of the farm as a successful demonstration 
plant for students. This was carried out and enough progress was 
made to warrant the reopening of the school for the academic year, 
1909-1910. A dairy was established and the cultivation of many of 
the native products begun, on a small experimental scale. The 
school opened with forty students and five instructors, but handi- 
capped by lack of public interest, it was almost impossible to secure 
students sufficiently advanced in education to fully profit by the in- 
struction given.” 

In 1908, the government of the United States extended to Porto 
Rico the benefits of the Morril-Hatch funds to go toward the main- 
tenance of the College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. Immedi- 
ately after, the insular legislature made appropriations for the purchase 
of land and for the construction of a college building in Mayagiiez. 
The land consisting of one hundred acres was purchased during 


21The Law Establishing the University of Porto Rico, Sec. 8, Report of the Commisston- 
er of Education of Porto Rico, 1903, p. 252. 

Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1912, p. 280. 

Ibid., 1911, p. 247. 

*4Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1910, p. 38. 


Secondary and Professional Education 255 


the following year. It adjoins the land of the United States experi- 
ment station. In 1911, the students were removed from Rio Piedras 
to Mayagtiez and were given instruction in the Mayagtez high 
school. A faculty was selected January 1, 1912, and the depart- 
ment of agriculture of the University of Porto Rico opened the follow- 
ing September under the name of The College of Agriculture and 
Mechanic Arts of the University of Porto Rico. 

It began its academic work with an enrollment of 126 students and 
a faculty of eighteen members, offering courses in sugar-chemistry, 
agriculture, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, civil 
engineering, home economics and special work.” A five-year under- 
graduate course of study was offered, accepting as entrance require- 
ments the diploma of the eighth grade of the public schools.” The 
standards advanced rapidly, keeping pace with the progress in the 
public school system. To-day this college corresponds to those 
colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts in the States. Besides 
the four-year college courses, a preparatory course of two years is 
offered, as it has been found that the training of these two years re- 
sults in better mastery of the collegiate courses. The requirements 
for admission to the collegiate courses have been kept at fifteen units 
as the recognized standard. High school graduates are admitted 
directly into the college courses.”§ 

College of Inberal Arts. So far no provision had been made for 
students wishing to pursue a collegiate course in the liberal arts. 
There was not a liberal arts college in the American sense of the word, 
and students wishing such training had to go to the States. To 
meet the growing demand for a more cultural college course, where at 
the same time some preparation for scientific study could be obtained, 
the board of trustees, at its meeting of April 4, 1910, authorized the 
department of liberal arts to take up the work at the end of the high 
school course and continue it on the basis equal to the universities in 
the United States. A temporary dean was appointed and two in- 
structors authorized, the balance of the instruction to be given by the 
teachers of the normal department.’® 

The college course was inaugurated September 1910. The en- 
trance requirements were those of the college entrance examination 
boards of the United States. A course of study of two years was 


Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 191%, p. 282. 

*Ibid., 1913, p. 397. 27Ibid., 1912, p. 282. 

287bid., 1920, p. 463. 

29Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Raco, 1910, p. 39. 


256 Education in Porto Rico 


offered, the intention being to arrive at some understanding with some 
of the best universities in the north so that students pursuing the 
two-year course could be transferred to the States and obtain a 
college degree on the completion of two years’ study, thus combining 
the advantages of a reasonable cost of education with the advanced 
culture of the older universities in the continent.2° The college, 
however, developed a four-year course soon and granted its first 
degree in June 1915. During the same year it offered post-graduate 
work for the purpose of obtaining the degree of Master of Sciences. 
This was the first post-graduate work to be given on the Island.*! 

To-day the courses in the College of Liberal Arts are designed to 
meet the needs of the following classes of students: (1) Those who 
wish to take a four-year college course for general culture; (2) 
Those for whom the four-year college course will serve as a basis 
for advanced professional or technical studies later; (3) Those 
intending to enter a medical college and matriculating in the two- 
year pre-medical course. The degrees of Bachelor of Arts and Bache- 
lor of Science are conferred upon students satisfactorily completing 
the corresponding four-year courses, both of these are liberal or cul- 
tural courses, the latter involving specialization (major and minor 
work) in the natural sciences or mathematics rather than in other 
departments. The two-year pre-medical course leads to no degree, 
diploma or formal certificate other than the regular certificate of 
credits and marks which are given to any University students upon 
request.” 

The Colleges of Law and Pharmacy. As recorded in another 
chapter, law was one of the traditional professions, with perhaps 
pharmacy as a close second. Therefore, academic work of collegiate 
rank could not exist long without a demand for studies in these two 
professions. The colleges of law and pharmacy were authorized 
by the legislature in 1913 and opened the following September, 
As was to be expected these two colleges were patronized immediately. 
opening with entering classes of nineteen and twenty-four students 
respectively. Since their beginning the entrance requirements of 
both colleges demand the completion of a high school course or 
its equivalent. The College of Law offered a course of study of three 


3°Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1910, p. 39. 

Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1915, p. 3938. 

Annual Catalog and Announcement of the University of Porto Rico, 1921-1922, p. 
43. 


Secondary and Professional Education 257 


years, based op the subjects required by the Supreme Court of Porto 
Rico. The College of Pharmacy offered a course of two years, based 
on the requirements of the Insular Board of Pharmacy, with such 
additions as local conditions demanded.® 

In 1917, the law course was increased to four years and the phar- 
macy course to three.*4 Since the latter did not prove popular with 
students and was evidently thought too Jong, the work was reorgan- 
ized in 1919, offering both the two and the three-year courses, the 
first leading to the degree of Graduate Pharmacist, and the supple- 
mentary course of one year leading to the degree of Pharmaceutical 
Chemist.» The four-year course in the College of Law leads to the 
degree of Bachelor of Laws. It is fully adapted to the laws and con- 
ditions in Porto Rico. 

As it stands to-day, the University of Porto Rico comprises the 
colleges in Rio Piedras, that is, the Normal College, the College of 
Liberal Arts, the College of Law and the College of Pharmacy; and 
in Mayagitiez, the College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. No 
other collegiate or professional departments have been established on 
account of lack of funds in the insular budget to maintain them.* 
Tuition in the Normal and Liberal Arts Colleges is gratis; in the other 
colleges there is a tuition fee not exceeding fifty dollars a year. 
The University is thus the culminatioa of the public school system, 
the last step of the American educational ladder. 

Resources of the University. The University is maintained by the 
following funds and appropriations: 

1. The University Fund: The sources of this fund are as follows 
(a) All escheated inheritances in Porto Rico, (b) Fifty per cent of all 
fines imposed by the courts of Porto Rico, which are paid into the 
Insular Treasury, except those imposed for cruelty to animals, and 
(c) Royalties from all franchises or public rights. This fund is 
available for the current expenses of the University, the repair of 
buildings and general expenses of operation. 

2. Permanent University Fund: Twenty-five per cent of all 
proceeds from the sale of public lands in Porto Rico is set aside for 
this fund. Seventy-five per cent of the income from the imvest- 
ments of this fund is available for the payments of current expenses, 
the purchase of equipment or the construction of buildings. The 


383Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1914, p. 407. 
47Thid., 1917, p. 504. 35Tbid., 1919, p. 611. 
36See Appendix VII. Table II. For expenses in higher and professional education. 


258 Education in Porto Rico 


remaining twenty-five per cent must be reinvested in reliable se- 
curities. 

3. The Morrill Fund: The University receives annually the sum 
of $50,000 under a federal act providing for the maintenance of 
colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts. 

4. A variable amount appropriated annually by the insular 
legislature. 

5. Tuition, matriculation, laboratory and miscellaneous fees.*’ 


Equipment. All buildings and grounds of the University have 
been provided through funds appropriated by the insular legislature. 
At Rio Piedras, the University owns a farm of one hundred and thirty 
acres and at Mayagiiez it has a campus of thirty acres and a farm of 
one hundred acres. The College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts 
was housed mainly in two concrete buildings, one with four labora- 
tories and six class rooms and the other a ten-room concrete building. 
Besides these there are outside buildings for the shops, plant houses, 
stables, dairy, chicken runs and swine yards. These buildings were 
well equipped with the necessary laboratories and scientific apparatus 
for the technical courses offered in the college. The earthquake of 
October 11, 1918 destroyed one of the buildings completely together 
with the chemical, bacteriology and plant pathology laboratories. 
Since then the lost equipment has been replaced slowly and more 
additions have been made. 


The Material Accommodations of the Rio Piedras Colleges are as 
Follows: A two-story concrete building, called the normal building; 
the Baldorioty building, a two-story reinforced concrete building; 
the assembly hall and gymnasium building; the manual training 
shops; laboratories of chemistry, physics, biology, pharmacy, 
physiology, and bacteriology, cooking and sewing; residences for 
the dean and six other families, and the Practice School building, a 
two-story concrete structure. The library, housed in the north 
wing of the Baldorioty building, contains about 14,000 volumes, 
exclusive of the reports and pamphlets issued by the govern- 
ment. Standard fiction and works of reference, both in Spanish 
and in English, are available for all departments of the Uni- 
versity. The Degetau art collection, some three hundred pictures left 
by Mr. Federico Degetau upon his death is a part of the equip- 


——_____ 


37Annual Catalog of the University of Porto Rico, 1921-1922, p. 23. 


Secondary and Professional Education 259 


ment of which the University is very proud. These are hung in 
the library and Practice School.** 

The life of the University is similar to that of like institutions in the 
north. There are no dormitories either in Mayagiiez or Rio Piedras, 
but the students live close by in the towns and are near enough to 
the colleges to spend most of their time in University activities. 
The customary undergraduate activities in the way of literary so- 
cieties, scientific and social clubs, etc. are found here. Popular among 
the activities of the University are those connected with the Athletic 
Association and Military Science and Tactics. All male students 
take military drill, while all students of the University must be 
members of the Athletic Association and participate in its activities. 

Scholarships. The government of Porto Rico has at various times 
made provisions for the maintenance of deserving students at different 
educational institutions in Porto Rico and in the United States 
through the establishment of scholarships, thus making it possible 
for the bright pupil in the remotest barrio within the Island to be 
carried through to graduation at the best universities in the States 
entirely as government scholarship students. The following were 
the classes of scholarships provided for: Graded, high school, 
college of agriculture, normal school, industrial, professional and 
municipal. The number of scholarships has varied from time to 
time according as appropriation was made to supply them. 

Legislation secured in 1908, empowered the school boards to use 
not more than five per cent of their total income for the purpose of 
maintaining in the graded schools, pupils who had completed with 
credit the work of the rural schools. This enables the bright pupils 
of the rural districts to obtain common school diplomas as scholar- 
ship students.*® 

To students who have received their common school diplomas there 
were open through appointment by the Commissioner of Education 
scholarships of an annual value of one hundred and eigh: dollars in 
the high schools. These were distributed equally as far as possible 
among the different electoral districts. Since there were no charges 
for tuition, text-books and supplies, it was possible for the student to 
support himself entirely on the scholarship. These were renewed 
from year to year until the high school course of four years was com- 


38 Annual Catalog of the University of Porto Rico, 1921-22, pp. 24-27. 
39The School Laws of Porto Rico, 1914, Act. of Feb. 19, 1908, Secs. 207-210 inclusive, 
pp. 57-58. 


260 Education in Porto Rico 


pleted, unless the student’s record was such as to warrant revoking 
of his scholarship. When the Agricultural College received graduates 
from the eighth grade, and the pupil desired to enter this school in- 
stead of the high school, there were open to him scholarships ranging 
in value from forty to one hundred dollars. These were granted by 
the Commissioner of Education.*° 

For some time a number of scholarships were maintained for pupils 
who had finished the ninth grade and desired to become teachers. 
These scholarships were of an annual value of one hundred and eighty 
dollars and were granted only to students entering the first year of the 
Normal College, but could be continued under certain restrictions 
until the completion of the course.*! 

Still another class of scholarships was open to graduates of the 
eighth grade. A number of these of an annual value of $250 each 
were available for colored boys completing the common school course. 
They were selected by the Commissioner of Education and were sent 
to Tuskegee Institute, Hampton Institute or other schools of a 
similar character to pursue studies or trades.” 

For a number of years the insular government maintained a number 
of scholarships of an annual value of $500 dollars each, available to 
graduates of high schools for the purpose of studying in the colleges 
and universities of the United States. In the case of men, preference 
was given to those who wished to fit themselves as scientific agricul- 
turists, engineers or foresters. Many young men and women of 
Porto Rico have been beneficiaries of this class of scholarships and 
have studied and graduated from such universities and colleges 
as Columbia University, Cornell University, University of Pennsyl- 
vania, Pennsylvania State College, Ohio State University, Univer- 
sity of Michigan, University of Louisiana, Massachusetts Institute 
of Technology.* 

The legislative assembly of 1911 enacted a law empowering the 
municipalities to maintain under certain restrictions, scholarship 
students in colleges and universities in the United States. Bene- 
ficiaries of these scholarships were required by law to pursue courses 
leading to degrees in one of the following subjects: Agriculture, 


“°The School Laws of Porto Rico, 1914, Act of March 14, 1907, as amended Feb. 15, 
1908, Secs. 194-199 inclusive, pp. 54-55. 

“The School Laws of Porto Rico, Act of March 12, 1903, as amended March 1, 
1906, and March 12, 1908, Secs. 200-206 inclusive, pp. 55-57. 

“The School Laws of Porto Rico, 1914, Secs. 176-178 inclusive p. 52. 

The School Laws of Porto Rico, 1914, Secs. 174-176; 180-193, pp. 51-54. 


Secondary and Professional Education 261 


agronomy, forestry, and the various branches of engineering.“ 
With the development of the University of Porto Rico scholarships to 
the United States decreased as the students could secure the desired 
training at home. With the extension and improvement of the 
public school systems the elementary and secondary scholarships 
have also decreased.“ 

SUMMARY 


Secondary education began about the same time as elementary 
education was established. Since the problem of Porto Rico has 
not been and is not one of secondary or higher education, but is of 
elementary, the secondary schools have not developed as fast as the 
elementary schools. They have developed as fast as they are needed 
under the present organization, and there is danger of establishing too 
many secondary schools without having the personnel or equip- 
ment to do standard secondary school work. Like the elementary 
school the secondary schools need reorganization suited to conditions 
and needs of the pupils who attend thera. The University of Porto 
Rico established by law in 1903 has developed slowly and is taking 
care creditably of the higher education of the youth of the Island. 
While the University was being developed, Porto Rican students 
received their higher and professional education in the United States. 
They continue to do so to-day to pursue studies in those professions 
which the Insular University does not yet offer. The work and scope 
of the University is limited greatly by the lack of funds, being much 
in need of equipment and of means to extend its usefulness broad- 
cast through the Island. 


“Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1911, p. 199. 
45See Appendix VII. Allottment for Scholarships since 1902, Table II. 


CHAPTER XIV 
CONCLUSIONS AND PRESENT DAY PROBLEMS 


Porto Rican Civilization. ‘The first Commissioner of Education to 
Porto Rico, reporting on the culture of the people, said: “This people 
has a civilization that, in many respects, is as far advanced as that 
of any stable country of Europe or America. It is wide of the mark 
to think these people lacking in civilization. It is not the absence 
but the kind of civilization that impairs our progress. The forms of 
the civilization developed here under Spanish dominion are so 
thoroughly fixed, so inelastic, that the real difficulty is not so much 
to impart a new as to break the fetters of the old civilization. Before 
Jamestown and Plymouth Rock, Porto Rico was a well developed and 
socially organized community. That some elements of this old 
civilization are admirable and much to be desired is patent to any 
student. ‘That others are greatly to be regretted is equally true.’”! 
Ever since the American occupation one of the most delicate problems 
has been and is the preservation of the desirable characteristics of the 
native culture and the introduction of North American culture. 

Education in Porto Rico for the Last Two Decades. One who saw 
Porto Rico twenty-five or thirty years ago and returns after a long 
absence sees amazing changes. He finds that the life of the Island 
has completely changed. But one who goes to Porto Rico from the 
United States for the first time finds a different civilization. He 
sees wealth among certain classes. He finds English spoken quite 
generally among the younger generation and signs of progress at 
every turn. But when he penetrates into all the districts of the 
Island, mixes with all classes and meets representatives of the one 
million and three hundred thousand inhabitants, he comes to the 
conclusion that Porto Rico when compared with the United States is 
still an undeveloped country with a different civilization. However, 
if a visit is made not only to Porto Rico, but also to Cuba, other 
Spanish-American republics and even to Spain, the traveller will see 


1Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1902, p. 64. 
(262) 


Conclusions and Present Day Problems 263 


many common characteristics in their civilizations all of which can be 
traced to Spain, the mother country. But he will also see many 
differences and contrasts and the most striking of these, as far as 
Porto Rico is concerned, is the problem of and the system of public 
education. 

In 1898 a Porto Rican could visit Spain and other Spanish countries 
and find very little difference in the educational systems and even 
feel himself at home in their schools. But that is not true to-day. 
In spite of the progress which all Spanish countries have made since 
the Spanish-American War, education in Porto Rico stands out 
distinctly from that of any other country speaking the Spanish 
language. Four hundred years of Spanish rule and civilization left 
an imprint which will not be erased and which it is desirable not to 
erase; twenty-four years of American occupation have given Porto 
Rico a system of public instruction which is destined to take the 
best of Spanish civilization and the best of North American eivili- 
zation and evolve a new culture distinct from that of Spain or other 
countries speaking the Spanish language, and distinct as well from the 
civilization of the United States. 

The Need of a Clearly Stated Educational Avm. The insular de- 
partment of education has never had a permanent definite and specific 
cultural aim for the Island. The schools have been functioning 
with success, but not knowing clearly what they were supposed to 
accomplish. ‘The time has come to establish and define a goal. 
The elementary school as such has a definite, specific aim and so do. 
the secondary school and the university. But the Island as a whole: 
should have a general comprehensive aim and every part of the school 
system should be focused to itsrealization. Educationis the toolin the 
hands of the Island to realize that insular aim. Geographical en- 
vironment as well as circumstances have furnished Porto Rico with 
excellent opportunities to make of herself a contributing factor to 
American civilization, provided she knows how to choose that aim 
and how to direct her forces toward its accomplishment. 

Porto Rico’s Cultural Aim. ‘The educational experience of the last 
two decades shows that the Island is on her way toward the creation 
of a new culture. That new culture is not sufficiently developed to 
exhibit clearly defined characteristics. Its Spanish elements and its 
American elements are in the process of amalgamation. They are 
still quite distinct one from the other. But the history of public 
education since 1898 in contrast with that of the Spanish régime 


264 Education in Porto Rico 


shows that the process of amalgamation is going on, perhaps at a 
much more rapid pace than appears at first sight. While this amal- 
gamation toward the production of a new culture is going on, we 
should have clear aims to work for. 

The first one should be the preservation of the best of Porto Rican 
culture, namely, those characteristics of Spanish culture trans- 
ferred to, and assimilated in the Island during four hundred years of 
Spanish rule and dominion, and those characteristics which have 
evolved from the native soil; the second aim should be the intro- 
duction and assimilation of the best of North American culture; 
and the third aim, the introduction and assimilation of the best of 
Spanish-American culture from the Rio Grande to the Horn. Porto 
Rico should be a center for the cultures of the Americas to meet and 
influence the native culture and each other. It would be a mistake to 
try to exist isolated, self-satisfied and hostile to foreign influence in 
the insular environment. It would be a greater mistake to intro- 
duce North American culture, copy it and imitate it and at the ex- 
pense of the native culture, expect to make New Yorkers, Pennsylvan- 
ians, Ohioans or what not out of the Porto Ricans. Such an attempt 
would not only be fundamentally wrong, but it would be futile. 

It would be a great pity and loss that Porto Rico with her location, 
language and culture should miss the opportunity of receiving from 
and exercising influence upon the rest of Spanish-American countries 
and upon modern Spain herself. Therefore, the aim of education in 
Porto Rico should be the creation of a new culture distinctly Porto 
Rican, adapted to the needs of Porto Rico and for the benefit of 
Porto Ricans. It should be sufficiently North American to enable 
the people to understand the United States, to sympathize with the 
national policies and problems and to prepare them to participate in 
the national life as citizens, quite as intelligently as the citizens of the 
different States. It should have an international scope and be in 
sympathy with Spanish and Spanish-American culture. 

Centralization of Administration as the Best Means to Accomplish 
the Desired Aim. After a careful investigation of educational con- 
ditions in Porto Rico in 1898, after a study of the influence of four 
hundred years of Spanish education, and after even trying for two 
years a system of schools administered separately by the municipali- 
ties, which proved a failure, the authorities in charge of the organi- 
zation of the school system saw that only a very centralized, insular 
controlled system of schools could achieve the desired end. Hence 


Conclusions and Present Day Problems 265 


the present system of school administration, headed by the Com- 
missioner of Education, an appointee of the President, with full 
power to run the schools and linked with every educational activity 
from the office of the Commissioner to the pupils of the kindergarten. 
Thus far such a plan has worked and should be continued as long as it 
will work. 

The Office of the Commissioner in Case of Change of Political Status. 
The status of Porto Rico is likely to be changed in the near future. 
Therefore it is likely that the time will soon come when the Com- 
missioner of Education will not be an appointee of the President. 
The office of Commissioner of Education is the most important public 
office in the Island. The system of education is so organized that he 
has complete control over public instruction. To a great extent the 
efficiency of the school system depends on the efficiency of the Com- 
missioner. In the interest of public education, he should be an expert 
educator of training and experience, who shall have a continuous 
term of office so that he may bring to bear in the administration of 
education the accumulated results of experience. Such a man should 
be chosen irrespective of political parties, religious creed and even, 
if necessary, of citizenship. Like a great surgeon who has specialized 
in his profession and may be summoned by any one in the world to 
practice his surgical skill, the educator is a man who has specialized 
in the science of education and should be appointed to office on his 
merits as a professional expert. The Island will be called upon to 
devise a way for the selection of such an expert and care should be 
taken that he shall always be an expert educator. With a man so 
qualified there is no danger in the highly centralized system and 
it should be continued as long as the right kind of men are available 
for the post of Commissioner of Education. 

Supervision of Instruction. Closely related to the work of the 
Commissioner is the work of supervision. The present supervisors 
and assistant supervisors are not technically speaking supervisors. 
They are administrative officers with very little time to supervise 
instruction. They have not the time to study the work of super- 
vision or to study the teachers and pupils and are not in a position to 
introduce methods leading to the improvement of the teachers and 
the general character and quality of class room activities. Their 
position should be definitely recognized as administrative and be 
given the title of Superintendent. Although it is argued that a 
well trained corps of teachers need no supervision, yet the tendency 


266 Education in Porto Rico 


in recent years has been the opposite. Supervision of instruction 
whether by the principal or by a specially trained supervisor is 
becoming more and more popular. The Normal College of the 
University should be the center where principals and supervisors are 
specially trained for the supervision of instruction. The schools are 
in need of a staff of supervisors under the Superintendents who devote 
all of their time to visiting a certain number of teachers, who study 
those teachers and their pupils and who meet with the teachers for 
conference and study. Such a staff of supervisors would have an 
opportunity to know their teachers and their pupils and would be 
able to introduce methods the end of which would be the improvement 
of the teachers and their work with the child as the ultimate aim. 

The Teachers. In order to achieve a common goal as soon as 
possible with the least loss of energy all those engaged in the common 
task must cooperate. The Spanish teachers of 1898 could not do 
that. They had been brought up and educated in a Spanish in- 
dividualistic atmosphere accustomed to do as they pleased and to 
act when they pleased irrespective of law. These teachers had to 
adapt themselves to the new system or leave the profession. Both 
things happened. Many left or were asked to leave the schools and 
many prepared themselves all over again to teach in the new system. 
But these were few and with the extension of the school system more 
teachers were needed. The progress in the training of teachers 
grew from a very humble beginning of institute work, through a 
very deficient normal school course and on with additional require- 
ments from time to time, until to-day when they are trained in the 
Normal College of the University of Porto Rico. What the teaching 
occupation lacks in Porto Rico is what it Jacks in the United States, 
namely, professional spirit. 

Professional Spirit. The Porto Rico Teachers’ Association is 
rendering excellent service to the teaching profession and to the Island 
as well through its activities, recruiting every teacher and impressing 
upon them the worth of their calling. This Association has done and 
is doing a great deal in creating a professional spirit among the 
teachers. But among many of the most gifted intellectually the 
teaching profession is still “‘a step’? to something else which offers 
a higher remuneration. Considering the increase in academic re- 
quirements and the increase in the cost of living in late years, teachers’ 
salaries have not kept pace with these. 

In order to attract the best intellect of the Island into the teach- 


Conclusions and Present Day Problems 267 


ing profession and in order that those entering the profession may 
be willing to go through the years of training for qualification to 
teach, teaching must be made worthwhile financially. By this is 
not meant that teachers should hope or aim to get rich, but it is 
meant that teachers should be worthy of their hire, that they deserve 
a comfortable living, making it possible for their homes to be ex- 
amples to their pupils and to society and that ample provision 
should be made for after years when they can no longer remain in 
active service. In practically all European countries and Latin 
American republics the teaching profession is nationalized. The 
teachers are employees of the State as they should be. Salaries are 
not high comparatively speaking, but the teachers are assured of a 
home, a decent living and provision for old age. 

The United States is one of the few countries where the teacher has 
had to shift for himself when he could no longer secure an appoint- 
ment and even in the United States this is changing to-day. Porto 
Rico can not demand high intellectual ability and long thorough 
training unless she is ready to support the teachers as they deserve. 
When the present and future comforts of the teachers will be assured, 
teaching will become a permanent profession. Gifted young men 
and women would offer themselves as recruits and there would be an 
opportunity to choose the best material. It would also offer an 
opportunity to make the profession attractive to men. Professional 
spirit can not be established on sentiment alone, there is an economic 
factor which must be taken into consideration. 

Reorganization. At the present time Porto Rico has an elementary 
school of eight years and a high school of four years. Why there 
should be such an organization when the majority of the children 
receive only a four-year elementary school course, can not be ex- 
plained. There is no reason for the “eight-four” plan existing in 
Porto Rico. The only reason is that it has been the prevalent organi- 
zation in the United States. This study has already shown that such 
an organization is not adapted to the needs of the Island. It is 
clear that it was borrowed from the United States, transplanted and 
imitated, mainly to comply with academic requirements in case 
Porto Rican pupils completing elementary and secondary education 
could enter the colleges and universities in the United States. 

In other words the interests of the masses of Porto Rican children 
were and are being sacrificed for those of a very small number who 
might want to enter college and the university. Such is a very poor 


268 Education in Porto Rico 


excuse for the introduction and retention until to-day of the “eight- 
four” plan, and it should be changed. The schools should be re- 
organized to suit conditions, and in that reorganization the present 
tendencies in the United States can help us much. 

Present Tendencies of Reorganization. 'The reasons for the “‘eight- 
four’ organization in the United States are not clear. This distri- 
bution of time to elementary and secondary education has not been 
the result of careful definition of the function of the two types of 
schools. For the last two decades or more a general popular belief 
in education has resulted in the establishment of four-year high 
schools the country over, but this “‘belief’? in secondary education 
has not been based on a clear definiton of the function of the secondary 
school. Parallel with the popularity of secondary education there 
has grown a movement toward the reorganization of elementary and. 
secondary education. The results of this movement are generally 
accepted to-day. It is popularly known as the “six-three-three”’ 
organization, that is, an elementary school of six years, a junior high 
school of three years and a senior high school of three years. 

The chief causes for this reorganization may be summarized as 
follows: 

1. Educational leaders have realized that there is a waste of time 
in the “eight-four’’ organization and that the elementary school is not 
preparing for the high school. 

2. Educational statistical studies of the last fifteen or twenty 
years have shown an enormously high rate of pupil mortality beginning 
at about the sixth grade and continuing through the early years of the 
high school course, showing that for a large number of children the 
elementary schools are not fulfilling their purpose. 

3. The development of the “scientific method of education” 
has shown that there is a wide variation in capacity, interests and 
needs of children in and out of school which demands a corresponding 
variety in the curriculum of secondary education. 

4. There is to-day an increasing appreciation of the fact that 
during the later years of the common school course, years of early 
adolescence, most elementary school pupils are going through changes 
in the nature of a rapid approach to adulthood, requiring changes 
in many features of the school, among them in the teaching staff. 

5. Itis argued that the proposed organization is more economical 
chiefly in buildings and equipment. 

Functions of the Schools According to the New Organization. The 


Conclusions and Present Day Problems 269 


new organization, being the result of experiment and study defines 
the purpose of each of the schools and how it should be accomplished? 

The Elementary School. ‘The purpose of the elementary school 
is to provide experience in meeting the common needs of all, regard- 
less of sex, vocation or social status,” or in terms of the general aims 
of life, ‘To provide that general basis for health, equally desirable 
for all; to develop that practical efficiency in activities shared by 
all in daily work and intercourse; to develop those ideas of habits of 
civics and other forms of group activity of equal value to all; and to 
cultivate interests and means of recreation common to all.” This 
common training required of every citizen should be realized before 
the period isreached, when different needs become so prominent that 
a differentiated curriculum is necessary to meet them. When that 
period has come the work of the Junior High School should be 
introduced. 

The Junior High School. It is the purpose of the junior high school 
to continue the common studies necessary to participate in meeting 
the needs represented by the general life purposes of all and at the 
same time provide for individual differences. It is the place de- 
signed for the child to find himself, to expose and reveal his individual 
interests. This is done by allowing some choice of subjects during the 
first year of the course and still more during the second and third so 
that by the age of fifteen each pupil will be engaged for nearly half of 
the time in meeting needs which are individually and personally his 
own and the remaining time is given to meeting needs common to all 
and appreciated as common by all. Thus the common interests of the 
group as well as the individual interests are cared for. 

The Senior High School. It is the purpose of the Senior High School 
to prepare for college those who have the capacity for a higher edu- 
cation, and to prepare for a life work those who can not spend more 
than three years beyond the junior high school. For the latter the 
high school becomes a vocational school, for the former a preparatory 
school offering choice of subjects which form a basis for the later 
directly vocational work awaiting them in the college or professional 
school. 

The Higher Schools. The higher schools are designed for those 
wishing to postpone their vocational training beyond the high 
school and thus secure a more scientific and thorough preparation in 


2This summary follows closely the discussion by Dr. Bonser in the book already 
referred to; pp. 61-71. 


270 Education in Porto Rico 


college, or for those who still follow a general cultural course in college 
in preparation to pursue one of the professions in the university. 

The Need of Reorganization in Porto Rico. As far as Porto Rico 
is concerned there is no doubt of the need of reorganization of ele- 
mentary and secondary education. The present tendency in the 
United States has already had its influence in Porto Rico and the 
last Commissioner of Education recommended a _ reorganization 
based on the “‘six-three-three” plan. Merely the fact that such is the 
tendency in the United States is no reason why it should be adopted in 
the Island where the problems are very different from those on the 
Continent. ‘To do so would be to err as in 1901 when the “‘eight- 
four” plan was adopted. 

The “six-three-three’ plan, however, has scientific reasons for 
existing. Those reasons might help Porto Rico in furnishing bases 
for a special insular organization. As long as the rural schools are 
on double-enrollment and offering only a four-year course it seems 
futile to think of reorganization on the “six-three-three’’ basis. 
There is no use in adopting a plan when it is not going to be put 
into operation. The present rural schools do not so much need 
reorganization as opportunities to offer a more complete course of 
study with special emphasis on agriculture and those desirable 
activities which the children are going to do any way at the end of 
the course. The consolidated rural schools can follow whatever 
organization is adopted for the urban schools. The “six-three- 
three’ plan can help in the reorganization of the urban schools. 
Nearly every municipality has now an eight-year elementary school 
and many have continuation schools. 

Reorganization as Applied to Porto Rico. The present elementary 
and continuation schools are not preparing the children for anything 
in particular beyond giving them a common school education and at 
the same time the children are being kept ten years in school. There 
are some small towns in the Island having very few pupils in the 
seventh and eighth grades. A six-year elementary school can furnish 
the common knowledge necessary to all as members of society. The 
shortening of the eight-year course of study to six years would not 
make much difference in the general culture of the masses. The 
funds spent now on the seventh and eighth grades and in the con- 
tinuation schools could be used to establish junior high schools in 
towns having a sufficient number of pupils to warrant the under- 
taking. 


Conclusions and Present Day Problems Q71 


At the same time senior high schools could be established in those 
larger towns having also a sufficient number of pupils to justify them. 
A system of scholarships can be maintained making it possible for 
promising pupils who finish the elementary school in the small 
towns and in the country, to study in the nearest town having a 
junior high school. The same can be done with junior high school 
pupils desiring to continue in the senior high school. 

Content of the Elementary School Curriculum. The content of the 
elementary school curriculum should be ‘‘made up of those activities 
in which every one must participate with a like degree of knowledge 
and with like attitudes and appreciations, in order that there may be 
a unified, efficient and stable social life.” During the years from 
six to twelve the interests, thoughts and feeling of children are more 
nearly alike than at any other period of their lives and therefore most 
susceptible to a common appeal. Every child of the Island should 
have the advantages of such an education. At the same time these 
first six years should prepare every child continuing his studies for 
entrance into the junior high school. 

Function of the Secondary School in Porto Rico. The children of 
Porto Rico mature early and rapidly. For a large number of them 
secondary education should be vocational. It should aim to prepare 
many to secure a livelihood for themselves and those depending upon 
them, to serve society well in their vocation and to find in that vo- 
cation their own best development. The majority of the children 
are poor. They are not only anxious to fit themselves to earn a 
livelihood but they are in actual need of earning something for them- 
selves and their families. A curriculum preparing the child for some 
definite occupation would furnish the greatest incentive to finish the 
elementary school and to remain for the junior high school. The 
average boy or girl does not aim for even a high school education 
much less a higher education. Even those who aim for the pro- 
fessions consider the years of high schools and professional training 
too long a time to be spent in preparation. 

The average Porto Rican boy or girl wants to cut his course as 
short as possible to go to work and earn a living. This attitude on the 
part of many furnishes fertile ground for the success of schools which 
pretend to prepare for college in two years beyond the eighth grade as 
it also furnishes fertile ground for the propaganda of so-called colleges 
in the United States. Such being the attitude among the people the 


sBonser, op. cit., p. 61. 


Q72 Education in Porto Rico 


junior high school could render a great service in preparing many of 
the children to earn a living as soon as possible. 

But the interest of secondary education must not all be immediately 
vocational. The secondary schools should also prepare for college 
and the university, as there are always a large number of pupils who 
aspire to be teachers, lawyers, physicians, engineers, agriculturists, 
and so on. The junior and senior high schools should furnish a 
preparation which would facilitate the studies of the latter class 
when they enter the higher schools. 

Function of the Secondary Schools in Terms of the Curriculum. 
In order to make clear the function of the secondary schools we 
might think in terms of the principles underlying the curriculum. 
No curriculum of the secondary school can be satisfactory and com- 
plete without giving due regard to each of the main objectives of 
education in a democracy, which according to the report of the Com- 
mission on Reorganization of Secondary Education‘ are: Health, 
Command of fundamental processes, Worthy home membership, 
Vocation, Citizenship, Worthy use of leisure and Ethical character. 

Application of These Objectives. Recognition of these objectives 
means that the curriculum gives due attention to each of them. 
Health as an objective means that the curriculum should include 
physical education supplemented by science courses focused on 
personal and community hygiene. Command of the fundamental 
processes means that the elementary school should furnish sufficient 
preparation to enter the secondary schools. Worthy home member- 
ship calls for the development of those qualities which make the in- 
dividual a worthy member of the family rendering and deriving 
benefit from such membership, which in turn demands emphasis on 
the social studies and household arts. Citizenship demands em- 
phasis on the social studies. 

Vocation as an objective demands that many pupils spend much 
of their time in specific preparation for a trade or another occupation 
to be given during the secondary school period. It also demands 
that those who go beyond the high school pursue studies that serve 
as a basis for advanced work in the college or university. The 
worthy use of leisure and ethical character are objectives which deserve 
special attention in Porto Rico in view of the fact that the environ- 
ment of the children is anything but healthy ethically. Much 


‘Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education, Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Edu- 
cation, Bulletin 1918, No. 35, pp. 10-11. 


Conclusions and Present Day Problems 273 


emphasis therefore should be given to such subjects as literature, 
art, music and others so taught as to develop appreciation and 
sufficient choice for personal and vocational interests. 

Constant and Variable Subjects in the Curriculum. The subjects of 
the secondary school curriculum should be so arranged that those 
children who can not go beyond the junior high school are prepared 
to earn a livelihood and can go out into a definite occupation at the 
end of the ninth grade. Most of the pupils who finish the eighth 
grade to-day and do not go beyond would be in this class. Pupils 
of the elementary school who because of over-age or other reasons do 
not derive due benefit from the instruction there should be trans- 
ferred to the junior high school to be prepared for a trade or another 
gainful occupation. The pupils who are going to-day through the 
high school but not to college would take up work leading to a gain- 
ful occupation at the end of the twelfth grade. Those going to 
college would take the subjects leading directly to the college courses 
of their special interest. 

In the meantime the unification element should not be forgotten 
and studies on citizenship knowledge and activities should be con- 
stant all through the six years of secondary education. The con- 
stants can be determined on principle by the needs of the individual 
as a member of society and by the general aim of the school system. 
The variables may be determined for the most part by vocational 
needs and depend on the locality the individual may live in, the 
opportunity it offers in the various vocations and the abilities of each 
person concerned. 

The Higher Schools. No educational system is complete with- 
out a free university at its apex. Free education should not stop 
with the elementary or secondary schools, but it should go on to 
college and university grade. A democratic state is under the 
obligation to provide free higher education to every child who has 
the intellectual capacity to profit thereby. The higher institutions 
of learning are the places to train leaders. Leadership should not 
be the privilege of the few, who because of social, political or economic 
status are in a position to lead even when short of intellectual or 
moral capacities, but it should be the right of all. Leadership should 
be competitive, open to every one intellectually and morally en- 
dowed to lead. It is the business of the school system to find that 
natural endowment, to open the way for its development and to 


Q7 4 Education in Porto Rico 


guide it during the process of training, and it is the business of the 
State to provide the schools where that training can be secured. 

Not until public education is crowned by a free public university 
can the state say that the doors to the highest service and the noblest 
personal attainments are open to every one who can show himself 
or herself capable and worthy to enter them. It is to the credit of 
the people of Porto Rico that ever since 1770 they have aspired to 
have a university, as it is also to their credit that under the in- 
fluence of American ideals of democracy they established and have 
maintained the present University of Porto Rico. As it stands to- 
day, the University is only of collegiate grade, very little opportunity 
being offered for graduate study and research. It is still in the 
process of realizing its original programme made at the time of its 
foundation. The realization of that programme and the additions 
that should be made to it depend on financial support. 

The Future Scope of the University. Like the State universities on 
the Continent, which were founded to serve the people of the par- 
ticular States, the University of Porto Rico was founded primarily 
to serve the inhabitants of the Island. But this does not hinder it 
from fulfilling a greater service, a service greater than that of any 
of the State universities of the Continent. While the State Uriversity 
is more or less limited to the boundaries of the State, the University of 
Porto Rico has an international scope. She is so situated geographic- 
ally that she can unite the two Americas and thus make its field of 
operation the entire western hemisphere. 

Porto Rico as a Meeting Point Between the Two Americas. 'There 
is no other American territory so endowed by nature and circum- 
stances to offer the same opportunity as a cultural meeting point 
between the two Americas as Porto Rico. Cuba is not United 
States territory. Haiti and Santo Domingo, now occupied by the 
United States military forces, will not remain so for very long. The 
Canal Zone is a strip of land maintained chiefly for the purpose of 
trafic. Its inhabitants are all North Americans and its system of 
education lacks the Latin-American atmosphere and _ problems. 
Porto Rico is the only country in the world where North American 
ideals are being put into operation in a Latin-American civilization 
of a high type. There is no other region where the two civilizations 
can touch each other and influence each other so effectively as in 
Porto Rico. 

Present Intercourse Between the Americas. The spiritual ties of 


Conclusions and Present Day Problems 275 


Spanish America are European, chiefly Spanish and French. Yet, 
due to geographical position, to United States prestige as a world 
power, to her wealth and her industries, to her enterprising men and 
their ability to get results, to her general internal progress and 
especially to her institutions and progress in popular education, and 
due also to the commercial relations that are bound to exist between 
the two Americas, and to the needs of Spanish America, the republics 
of the south can not ignore their northern neighbor. They see that 
they can learn much from her. In order to know the United States 
better, hundreds of Latin-American students and many professors 
are coming to the northern universities. They are coming in contact 
with North American life, institutions and ideals. They will go 
back home and strengthen the ties between the north and the south. 

On the other hand, North American scholars are visiting the 
southern countries and are finding out that there are other things 
there besides bull fights, revolutions and Indians. They are finding 
a culture and a civilization worthwhile studying and appreciating. 
These return to the North and are doing their share in establishing 
closer relations between the two peoples. But unless the universities 
of North America make a special effort to attract Spanish-American 
students, and recognize their academic degrees as does France and 
Spain, the students who are coming now to the United States will 
turn to Europe again and study in European universities as they did 
before the war. Since the close of the war, Spanish-American stu- 
dents are again turning their interest to the French universities where 
their Bachelor of Arts degree admits them to the professional schools. 

Porto Rico as a Center for the Study of Spanish. Two great world 
languages are spoken in the western hemisphere, English and Spanish. 
North America is permanently English speaking, Spanish America is 
permanently Spanish speaking. The likeness of Portuguese to 
Spanish is such that the former can be included in the latter. Since 
the war, Spanish has largely taken the place of German in the public 
schools and colleges of North America. The interest in the study of 
Spanish is primarily utilitarian, but the mere study of the language has 
given rise to interest in Spanish culture. Many people are studying 
Spanish, not only as an equipment to understand and to trade with 
the Spanish countries, but also for cultural purposes, to know more 
about Spanish art, history and literature. Porto Rico furnishes a 
place under the American flag and at the doors of the United States 
where the best training in the Spanish language can be secured. 


276 Education in Porto Rico 


The people of Porto Rico speak better Spanish to-day than during 
the Spanish régime. 

A language is correctly spoken in proportion as education is 
extended to reach the masses and in Porto Rico to-day more attention 
is being given in the schools to Castilian pronunciation, Spanish 
literature and general usage than in the Spanish schools. Unless a 
person can go to reside for a season in Old or New Castile, in such 
Castilian cities as Valladolid, Burgos, Avila and others, he can not 
acquire Spanish better in any other place than in Porto Rico. Few 
people intending to fit themselves to teach Spanish can go to Spain, 
while many can go to Porto Rico, which is the reason why many 
Spanish teachers of the United States have prepared themselves in 
Porto Rico. The Insular University is to-day training Spanish 
teachers for the schools and colleges of the Continent. 

A Center for the Study of English. The interest of the United 
States in Spanish can well compare with the interest the Spanish 
Americans have in English. South of the Rio Grande, English is 
taught in many secondary schools. The University of Porto Rico 
with her standard colleges of Education and Liberal Arts offers 
splendid opportunities for Latin Americans to study English in a 
country with traditions similar to theirs, among a people largely of 
the same origin and in sympathy with their traditions, culture and 
institutions, and in a society in which they can mingle without racial 
differences or prejudice. 

Latin-American students find it hard to adapt themselves to North 
American customs and they actually go through a period of agony 
when they first come to the United States, especially if they do not 
have a speaking knowledge of English. Many of them feel that they 
are not welcomed. ‘They become homesick and return home without 
having accomplished what they set out to do, when only a little 
guidance on the part of the colleges and universities would contribute 
a great deal to their academic success. 

Advantage of Environment. A still greater opportunity for Latin- 
American students is the fact that Porto Rico offers them an Ameri- 
can education accredited in the colleges and universities of the North 
im an environment similar to theirs and without any danger of their 
becoming so Americanized that they would not feel happy on their 
return home. Many students come to the United States and when 
they return home they are actually foreigners in their own country, 
they have grown out of sympathy with their own peoples. If they 


Conclusions and Present Day Problems a4 i 


stay at home they have to go through a period of adaptation, but 
many of them leave their homes forever and thereby destroy their 
future usefulness for their country. The Porto Rico environment 
offers similar conditions and problems in a society in a great many 
respects like theirs. Moreover, they are in an American atmosphere 
witnessing constantly the efforts being put forth to adapt North 
American ideals to a Latin-American civilization. Such an experi- 
ence would equip them to act as interpreters of North American 
culture to Spanish-American peoples. 

A Center for Business Training. The interest of the United States 
in Spanish is primarily to fit men and women to participate in the 
commercial relations between the two Americas. Trade with Spanish 
America is being encouraged more and more and as the southern 
countries with their immense undeveloped resources are opened to the 
world the commercial interests will still be greater. Porto Rico offers 
an opportunity to train men for this purpose among Latin-American 
people with whom they would have to deal in business relations. 
At the same time students from the south could come for their train- 
ing to Porto Rico where there is enough of the American element to 
come in contact with North American business methods and life. 
The University of Porto Rico is contemplating establishing a College 
of Latin-American Trade and Commerce to attract students from the 
two Americas. Due to lack of funds this college is still an ambition. 

A Center for Diplomatic Training. Much of the misunderstanding 
between the two Americas has been due to the lack of preparation of 
those who represent the United States in the diplomatic and consular 
service. The United States is judged to a great extent by her repre- 
sentatives. Their ability to mix with Latin-American peoples and 
according to Latin-American etiquette, is a great asset to such men. 
Another handicap of the people in the diplomatic and consular 
service is the language. The Latin-Americans although critical of the 
poor use of Spanish enjoy hearing a foreigner use their language 
correctly. 

Again the University of Porto Rico is a center that could be profit- 
ably used by the United States to train future diplomats for Spanish 
America, in a Latin-American atmosphere and among the kind of 
people with whom they will come in contact in the service. But the 
United States should give an opportunity to Porto Ricans in the 
diplomatic and consular service. There are many who are thorough 
Americans of suitable education and experience who should be recog- 


278 Education in Porto Rico 


nized and selected for such service. One of the future plans of the 
University is a College of History and International Law and Diplo- 
macy where special effort will be made to prepare those who desire to 
enter diplomatic and consular service. 

A Center for Agricultural Study and Research. Finally Porto Rico 
offers a future center for scientific research and study especially in 
the fields of agriculture and medicine. The soil is rich in yields of 
tobacco, sugar cane, coffee, fruits and many other tropical products 
common to the vast areas of undeveloped tropical America. A\l- 
ready students from some of the other West Indies are attending the 
College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts in Mayagtez. This College 
and the United States Experiment Station have already rendered ex- 
cellent service to tropical agriculture. These should be developed 
to minister to the further prosperity of the Island and also to con- 
tribute scientific and practical knowledge to the development of all 
tropical and semi-tropical regions of the Americas. 

At the same time North American students interested in tropical 
agriculture could take their college course or part of it in the University 
of Porto Rico and thus fit themselves in contact with the practical 
problems of tropical agriculture. The graduates of the College of 
Agriculture are preferred by the sugar planters to those who take 
their training in the North. The latter have to pursue an apprentice- 
ship course before they can render their best service to the companies 
while the former receive their training in contact with the practical 
problems. 

A Center for Research and Study in Tropical Medicine. The 
opportunity for research work in tropical medicine is even greater 
than that of agriculture. There is great need in tropical America 
for medical progress and sanitary reform. ‘The work of sanitation 
in Cuba, the Philippine Islands, Porto Rico, Haiti and above all the 
Panama Canal Zone and some South American ports has over- 
thrown forever the idea held until recently that life in a warm climate 
was less healthful than in the North and that the death rate must 
always be greater in the tropics. ‘The Canal Zone, once uninhabitable 
by the white man, is to-day one of the cleanest and most healthy 
spots in the American continent. The task of health and sanitation 
in Porto Rico is as great as that of education. They are so closely 
related and one so dependent on the other that it is hard to separate 
them. Like Porto Rico all tropical America has been sadly neglected 
in health and sanitation. Porto Rico is fighting hard against the 


Conclusions and Present Day Problems 279 


prevalent tropical diseases. The International Health Bureau of the 
Rockefeller Foundation has sent a Commission to the Island to 
cooperate in the warfare against disease. 

Institute of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. These conditions have 
led to the foundation of the Institute of Tropical Medicine and 
Hygiene. Soon after the American occupation, a Superior Board of 
Health was organized and a laboratory equipped to make scientific 
investigations. ‘Success in scientific research was marked by the 
discovery of the anemia germs by Dr. Bailey K. Ashford. This led 
to the passage of a law in 1904 which created ‘“The Porto Rico Anemia 
Commission.’ Dispensaries were established in various parts 
of the Island for the treatment of uncinariasis. The work continued 
until 1912 when the law creating the Institute was passed. Since its 
establishment the staff of the Institute has been busy in the study of 
tropical diseases such as uncinariasis, dengue fever, suspected yellow 
fever, sprue, bubonic plague and others. Valuable information has 
been given out in numerous investigations. 

It is the opinion of Dr. Ashford, who is recognized to-day as one of 
the world’s foremost authorities in tropical diseases, that it should be 
the policy of the United States to make Porto Rico the center for 
research and instruction in branches of medical and sanitary science: 
relating to the tropics. This Institute will be closely connected. 
with, if not an integral part of, the College of Medicine of the University 
of Porto Rico provided for by law, but not yet established because of 
lack of funds. This college will furnish a center for the study and. 
treatment of tropical maladies,the mfluence of which can be ex- 
tended to all tropical America. ‘The North and the South can then 
meet in Porto Rico for scientific research and study and thereby 
understand each other’s scientific problems and cooperate in solving 
them. 


SUMMARY 


The need of inter-American understanding demands relations other 
than material ones. No matter how different peoples may be in 
ancestry, educatior and environment, they may always meet sympa- 
thetically on an intellectual basis. Porto Rico offers an oppor- 
tunity not only as a meeting point for common ideas and amalgama- 
tion of different ideals, but also as a place where these ideals can be 
increased and thereby establish and maintain closer international 
relations between the two Americas. 


280 Education in Porto Rico 


It offers a center for the trade of both Americas to meet and 
thereby establish and maintain closer commercial relations. It 
offers a center for scientific study and research where scientists from 
the North and from the South can meet and cooperate in solving 
problems of health and sanitation. Her bilingual population, her 
Spanish environment and traditions and her American philosophy 
and institutions will perpetuate the elements common to both civili- 
zations without loss of contact with either of them. Eminent scholars 
and publicists from Spain and from Latin America can come to the 
University of Porto Rico and give lectures to students who under- 
stand Spanish perfectly, while distinguished authorities in science, 
literature, government, politics and law can go from the United 
States and give lectures in their subjects to those same students who 
also understand English perfectly. This distinctive opportunity 
should be exploited in the interest of Pan-Americanism, that it may 
become a fact and not merely a dream or interesting aspiration. 


APPENDICES 


APPENDIX I 
SCHOOL CENSUS OF PORTO RICO—DECEMBER, 1864 
Num- | Public Private Number of Pupils Number of 
ber Schools | Schools Boys Girls Teachers 
PPS SACOG MINIM PU, SCN RN FURR ay Lito 
District ; bo bo ® alaries 
Fami- n on n w i=] =} te is] a o “at 
; a | ow B a | a Pesos 
lies Parag pace Wiest heey at By Pte Bea bee Bes 3 8 
a ANCHOR E TE SOW EAD MT apie Wed he lets hi 


———_ | | | | | | | | S| | SS SSS NTT 


San Juan...| 10,603 | 21 8 3" 1 | 304} 181) 485) 93) 72] 165) 24 9 10,032 
Aguadilla..} 13,099 | 7 6 | — | — | 117} 148} 265] 103] 51) 154 7 6 4,050 
Arecibo....| 13,916] 8 7} — |— | 128] 178] 306) 56; 45] 101 8 7 2,750 
Caguas....} 11,546 | 10 8 2) — | 164] 130} 294] 131] 80] 211; 10 ri 4,800 
Humacao...| 10,814] 8 7|— 1 | 147] 137) 284) 93] 45) 138 8 7 4,470 
Mayaguez..} 8,148] 4 4 2 1 68] 36] 104) 47) 20) 67 6 4 1,600 
Poncel aes 18,244 | 13 6 8 6 | 309] 183] 492] 146] 48] 194] 21 12 5,840 
San German] 12,447} 3 2 1{/— 78] 88] 166; 26) 36) 62 4 2 2,000 
Totals... 98,817 | 74 | 48 | 16 9 |1315]1081}2396} 695] 397|1092| 88 54 35,542 


APPENDIX II 


NUMBER OF SCHOOLS THAT SHOULD HAVE BEEN ESTABLISHED IN 
PORTO RICO ACCORDING TO THE DECREE OF 1865 


9g 
ed 3 2 a 2 pe 
B ie r=} 2 8 sn 8 8 BZ x) S73 3 
e | g5)38 | 23 | 23 | ss | 38] se) oe jaa |. Teta 
aa] aj oa | mw n 8" she} 
oe) oH 9 ar oO =I wed we OA 36 Amount 
° ue oN Om > VY w» 0,2 oY? fe a 
Oasis Be Poe | Os) OF) [08 we Pas of 
> aed Ls edd eed a= ee ated ds Pc ns es MOMs Dewy eRe ARTZ t 
Towns 5 oS af ei og 30, 3a 3.4 aH 3 Salaries 
S jet eo lee | se ad | ae lawl eet oe 
2 | §s Be ace eng Un CMU in 4 ae eve 
a pe a a a a im ee Pesos 
San Juan...| D.S 7 aoe — 14 1 1 1 17 5,420 
Adjuntas...| 2nd. 15 — — 1 3 — —- — 4 960 
Aguada..... 2nd. 16 —_ — il 4 — — — 5 1,140 
Aguadilla...] D.S.| 21 1 — = 5 1 1 1 8 3,800 
Aguas Bue- 

NaS oacwss 2nd. 10 — — 1 2 — —_ ns 3 780 
Aibonito....| 2nd. 9 — — i 1 — — — 2 600 
Anasco..... 1st. 23 1 — 6 — — — 7 1,680 
Arecibo..... Das 18 1 — — 4 1 1 1 7 3,620 
AST YO ania os Ist. 4 a 1 —_— 1 —_— — oa 2 780 


(281) 


282 Education in Porto Rico 
APPENDIX II CONTINUED 
wm 
e 8 3 3 ie fe v2 4 a 
eB F B32 | 93 | 83 8s [es |ws | $8 | a2 hase 
3 G1 gn lon |]On | So | BS | BS | 8a Er aa 
Towns nd ‘O.c oy le] 30h en aN On Oe Aas: of 
mp 9 45 | ns as a2 A+ By BS = | Solari 
o o Se | Ba oa 3 3a Bog »°t Se, alaries 
» | oh ia2g}me | so | 48 | 2s | 2m] ss | se 
3 a 3 a g Z2|ns 16 
@ S na & a a - 2H Pesos 
iced Aha) Be coisa ANad CU OU Bo. 
Barran- 
quitas 2nd. 8 aaa — 1 1 al 3 pe 2 600 
Barros...... 2nd. 17 =a a 1 3 _ ee) Els 4 960 
Bayamon...} Ist. 14 cas 1 cae 3 Hes. sa pa 4 1,140 
Cabo-Rojo..| 1st. 7 ey 1 es) 3 fas sea a 4 1,140 
Caguas..... ASE oles Ph ae 1 tes 5} — | — | — 6 | 1,500 
Camuy..... 2nd. 12 — ms 1 2 os ie Bay 3 730 
Carolina....| 2nd. 6 => ars 1 1 Ste ae in 2 600 
Cayey Ist. 20 — 1 ce 5 aes a mg 6 1,500 
Ceibac catia: 2nd. 8 —_ _— 1 1 Sot patel bie 2 600 
Ciales...... 2nd. 9 aed sama 1 1 ee Jan clk 2 600 
Cidras aie 2nd. 14 _— — 1 5 ip ely ‘ee 6 1,820 
Coamo..... 2nd. | 11 = — 1 2 ¥a! ef he 3 780 
Corozal.....| 2nd. | 12 a ait 1 3 = ao ee 4 960 
Dorado..... 2nd. 5 — — 1 1 abs ae ee 2 600 
Farjardo....{ Ist. 9 —- 1 = 2 re ne ue 3 960 
Guainabo...| 2nd. 12 mend — 1 1 “ae Sa) 2 600 
Guayama... D.S li i HIE con 2 A uf 1 5 3,760 
Guayanilla..} 2nd. | 14 ame a 1 3 ae bert 4 960 
Gurabo..... 2nd. 9 —- == 1 3 (Ais pb. oes, 4 960 
Hatillo 42%): 2nd. 8 ad — 1 3 ot —— pias 4 960 
Hato Grande} 2nd. li on aes 1 4 ot fae) 5 1,140 
Humacao D.S 12 1 ao ae 3 1 1 1 6 3,440 
Isabela..... 2nd. 12 — —— 1 3 mat, oe 4 960 
Juana Diaz Ist. 21 a 1 = 5 ae we piste 6 1,500 
Juncos..... 2nd. 8 =a —— 1 3 Lash yell Mad 4 960 
Lares...... 2nd. {| 11 ima = 1 2 ee ee at 3 730 
Loiza sean 2nd. 10 a= = 1 1 is Age es 2 600 
Luquillo....] 2nd. 7 Goat ae 1 1 ee #T. au 2 600 
Manati..... Ist. 10 aT 1 x 3 me = at 4 1,140 
Maunabo...| 2nd. 8 = — 1 2 i Eee 3 730 
Mayagnez D.S 28 1 = —_ 6 1 1 1 9 3,980 
Moca...... 2nd. 12 am 1 4 see 7 5 1,140 
Morovis....| 2nd. 14 Ta can 1 Ye ae nats pabale 3 780 
Naguabo....} Ist. 10 ae 1 — 1 (heh rit mE 2 780 
Naranjito...| 2nd. 8 a. aap 1 2 Be lies eye 3 780 
Patillas..... Ist. 15 — 1 — 4 LD, oe wey, A 1,320 
Pejfiuelas....| 2nd. 17 Py al 1 3 Hak vane dai 4 960 
Pepino..... Ist. | 25 cn 1 _ 6 a we hes 7 1,680 
Piedras..... 2nd. 8 TPF ire 1 2 oe ax a 760 
Ponce...... D.S.| 24 1 ai — 6 1 1 1 9 3,980 
Quebradillas | 2nd. 8 = faa 1 2 ee nad. 3 780 
Rincon..... 2nd. 9 a Ba 1 2 — ws soe 3 780 
Rio Grande.} Ist. 6 a | 1 3 — = Ans 4 1,140 
Rio Piedras.} Ist. 6 = 1 az 3 ae EY hd 4 1,140 
Sabana del 
Palmar...} 2nd. 9 a mo 2 ait nels Lees 3 780 
Sabana 
Grande...i 2nd. 8 — — j 2 pean As rE, 3 780 


Number of Schools and Decree of 1865 283 

APPENDIX II CONTINUED 
Salinas..... 2nd. 6 woe — 1 1 — 2 600 
San German | Ist. 29 oe 1 — 7 — 9 2,160 
Santa Isabel | 2nd. a — — 1 1 1 2 600 
Toa Alta....} 2nd. 8 oo a 1 2 — 3 780 
Toa Baja...| 2nd. 5 — — 1 1 — 2 600 
Trujillo..... 

Altoouiss: 2nd. ie — —_ 1 2 _ 3 780 
Trujillo..... 

Bajo..... 2nd. 7 — — 1 2 — 3 780 
Utuado..... 2nd. 22 —— — 1 5 oe 6 1,320 
Vega Alta 2nd. 8 — —_ 1 1 — 2 600 
Vega Baja Ist. 14 — 1 —_ 3 —_ 4 1,140 
Yabucoa 1st. 10 — 1 — 3 — 4 1,140 
Yauco...... Ist. 19 — 1 — 4 — 5 1,320 
Isla de 

Vieques...| 1st. 8 — 1 — 2 — 3 960 
Totals...... # 18 43 | 200 8 283 | 85,460 


284 


Education in Porto Rico 


APPENDIX III 


EXAMPLES OF QUESTIONS ON THE DIFFERENT SUBJECTS OF THE 
CURRICULUM USED FOR TEACHERS’ COMPETITIVE EXAMINA- 


TIONS FROM 1880 TO 1893. 


For Superior TEACHERS 


RE tIGION. 

1. Qué debe hacer el cristiano cuando llega al uso dela raz6n? Doctrina cristiana. 
Verdades de neustra fé. Basta esta para salvarse?. 

2. Dios y unotrino. Divinas personas. Cual de ellas se hizo hombre y conqué 
fin? . 

3. Dénde encarné el Verbo divino y comé se verificé este misterio? 

7. Decdlogo. Preceptos que comprende. Fé, esperanza y caridad 

8. Religiédn. Idolatria. Herejia. Superstici6n. Impiedad. Sacrilegio. Jura- 
mento, Blasfemia. 

12. La Iglesia Catélica. Sus caracteres y jerarquias. Quién ejerce la suprema 
autoridad en la Iglesia y con qué titulo? 

17. Existencia de Dios y principales atributos. Existencia e inmortalidad del 
alma humana. 

18. Prubeas de la divinidad de la religién cristiana. Milagros. Profesias. 

19. Deberes del hombre para con Dios. Necesidad y obligaciédn de dar a Dios 

culto interno y externo. Debemos tambien darlo a la Virgen, a los Santos y 
a sus imagenes y relfquias? 

21. Historia Sagrada. Epocas en que se divide. Creacién del mundo antes del 
diluvio. 

23. Estado del mundo despues del diluvio. Vocaci6n de Abraham. Cémo 
probé y recompensé Dios la fé y obediencia de este patriarca? De qué 
es figura el sacrificio de Isaac? 

26. Moisés. Aaron. Las plagas. Salidas del cautiverio. Paso del Mar Rojo. 
Monte Sinai. Promulgacién de la ley. Muerte de Moises. 

28. Divisidn del reino de Israel a la muerte de Salomén. Caida de Israel y de 
Jud4é. Toma de Jerusalem. por Nabuconodosor. Destruccién del 
templo. Cautividad de Babilonia. 

Prepagocia. 

1. Su definici6n como ciencia y como arte. Su divisiédn. Diferencia entre la 
educacién y la instruccién. Fundamento, objeto é importancia de la 
educacién. Partes dela misma. Agentes, extensi6n y principios mas 
notables de la educacién. 

2. Sucinta idea del hombre. Tejidos .Organos. Aparatos y funciones. Clasi- 

ficaciones de las funciones. 

6. Funciones de relacién. Aparatos de las sensaciones. Sistema nervioso y sus 
divisiones. Sistema ganglionar. Nervios y funciones. 

7. Cinco sentidos. 

9. Objecto e importancia de educacidén fisica. etc. 

10. Objeto e importancia de la educacién intelectual. ete. 


Examples of Questions 285 


11. Memoria. etc. 

12. Sensibilidad. etc. 

14. Educacién religiosa. etc. 
15. Dela Instruccién. etc. 

17. Fundamentos de los programas de primera ensefianza en sus dos grados, y 
extensién que convendra dar a acada asignatura en las diversas clases de 
escuelas. 

18. Objecto de los métodos. Procedimiento y forma de ensefianza. Método 
general y particular. ete. 


GRaAMATICA. 

1. Idioma o lenguage. Gramdtica: Partes en que se divide y su explicacién. 
Fin de la gramatica. 

2. Alfabeto. Letras: su  divisién. Siflabas: sus clases. Palabras: su_ clasi- 
ficacid6n segun las ideas que representan. Fracién: sus partes. Cud4les 
son las variables y qué alteracién sufren? 

4. Nombre: su divisién en, genérico y propio. Accidentes gramaticales del 
nombre. Género de los nombres por su significaci6n. Idem por sus termin- 
aciones. Excepciones en cada uno de los casos. 

9. Verbo: Su divisidn y accidentes. Modos principales y subordinados, expli- 
cando sus diferencias. 

11. Verbos regulares e irregulares: clases de los irregulares. Reglas respecto a sus 
letras radicales, y a sus terminaciones con las excepciones que hay. Ejemplos. 

17. Sintaxis: Definicién y divisién. Concordancia: sus clases. Régimen: diferen- 
tes clases de régimen. Construccién: su division y ejemplos. 


ARIMETICA. 


1. Nociones preliminares. Adicién. Sustraccién. Miultiplicacién. Divisién. 
Usos de las cuatro operaciones. Problemas. 


g. Propiedades generales de los nimeros. Caracteres de divisibilidad por dos y 
sus potencias; por cinco y sus potencias; por tres, siete, nueve once. Ntim- 
eros primos- M. C. D. y M. C. M. 


5. Cuadrado y raiz cuadrada de los ntimeros enteros, fracciones ordinarias y 
fracciones decimales. Cubo y raiz ctibica de los nimeros enteros, fracciones 
ordinarias y fracciones decimales. Propiedades generales de las potencias y 
raices. 

7. Regla de tres simple y compuesta. Regla de interés simple y compuesta. 
Regla de descuento comercial y racional. Fondos piublicos. 

8. Repartimientos proporcionales. Regla de sociedad, Regla aligacién. Regla 
conjunta. Regla de falsa posicién. 

ALGEBRA. 

9. Objecto del Algebra. Diferencia que existe entre la resolucién algébréica 
numérica de un problema. Definicién de coeficiente y exponente igualdad, 
ecuacién e identidad. Definiciédn de término. Clasificaci6n que se hace 
de las expresiones algébricas segun el ntimero de sus términos. 

15. Ecuaciones: Clasificaci6n segun el numero de sus incognitas y el valor de sus 
exponentes. Principio en se fundan la resclucion de las ecuaciones de primer 
grado con una sola incdégnita. Transposicién de términos. 


286 Education in Porto Rico 


EXAMPLES OF QUESTIONS USED AFTER 1893. (Moreno, op. cit., p. 664). 
BOYS’ ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 


Programas oficiales aprobados por el Gobierno General de las Escuelas ptiblicas de 
esta provincia. 
Doctrina CristiANA E Historta SaGRaDA. 

1. Fin del hombre sobre la tierra, y modo de conseguirlo. Qué se entiende por 
doctrina cristiana y catecismo? Cuantas partes contine y cuales son? 

2. Virtudes teologales. Qué es fé? Su necesidad y objeto. 

14. Bautismo. Su definicién, institucién. Necesidad y ministro de este sacra- 
mento. Que efecto causa en el alma? 
GErOGRAFIA. 

1. Geografia: Su definicién y divisiones, Ciencias auxiliares. de la geografia. 
Sistemas astronémicos. 

2. Cuerpos celestes: su division. Constelaciones: Cudles son las mas notables. 
Estrella polar. El Sol: sus propiedades. Volumen y distancia a que se 
encuentra de nosotros, 

6. La Tierra: su figura y sus dimensiones. Polos terrestres. Eje de la tierra. 
Circulos que se consideran trazados en la tierra. Longitud y Latitud. 
Mapas: sus clases. 

17. América: Descripciédn general del Nuevo Mundo. Mares, golfos, estrechos, 
islas, peninsulas, cabos, montes, lagos y rios de América. Estados que 
comprende la septentrional, la central y la meridional. Razas, idiomas y 
religiones de América. ; 

18. Oceania. 

Questions 19 to 28 are all on Spain. 

CALIGRAFiA. 

1. Qué se entiende por caligrafia? Cudl es su objeto? Partes en que se divide el 
arte caligrafico. Ciencias auxiliares de la caligrafia. 

8. Cémo se determina la posicién de la pluma para escribir la letra espafiola segun 
Iturzaeta. Caracter de la letra que debe ensefiarse en las escuelas y porqué. 

12. Clasificacién de las curvas. Cémo se traza el tercer ejercicio preliminar. del 
Sr. Iturzaeta? 

OrTOLOGiA. 

1. Ortologia. Etimologia de esta voz. Importancia de su estudio. Partes que 
comprende el arte de la lectura. Objeto de cada una de ellas. 

3. Leer: De cudntas maneras es la lectura? Lectura mental. Lectura oral- 
Reglas que deben tenerse presente para la lectura oral, o Jectura en alta voz. 

14. Defectos o vicios de pronunciacién que hay que extirpar en la lectura. Tar- 
tamudez, balbucencia, ceceo, seseo y acento provincial. Modo de corregir 

estos defectos o vicios. 

23. Forma en que pueden presentarse los escritos. Cualidades que pide la buena 
lectura del didlogo. 

28. Del estilo. Su importancia en la lectura. Diferentes clases de estilo. 


Secondary School Enrollment 


Total 


—— ef | | SS | LN 


24120 


Expenses 
Person- | Mate- 
nel rial 
35542 1535 
90834 aa 
88133 a 
103078 26378 
142454 48704 
186334 70621 
191424 71245 


287 


Total 
(pesos) 


36857 
90834 
88133 
129456 
191158 
256955 
262669 


APPENDIX IV 
PERIODS OF PUBLIC PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN PORTO RICO! 

Public Schools Pupils 

For For 
Boys | Girls | Total | Boys | Girls 
December 1864....... 74 48 122 2396] 1092 
une: LOG fascists eee 240 56 296 7543| 1929 
aflvsl SEG cr sarc 246 67 313 6192} 1937 
October 1878. ......:. 238 91 329 7523) 3474 
une 1880s acne 328 104 432 | 10736] 4482 
Mune 188i less caer 3t2 112 484 | 18025] 6095 
After July 1, 1881.....] 384 ily 501 | 18025] 6095 


Porto Rico, July 3, 1881. The Secretary of the Government, Francisco Fontanals y Martinez. 


Note: Expenses are in pesos, 
Moreno: OP, cit. p. 308. 


APPENDIX V 


SECONDARY SCHOOL ENROLLMENT, 1883-1899 


Year 


se; of 4) 9 Wye ole 2 oe. ow) seer 4 of, 6) ase 
SiN UG) is) 61/me: (ee: a) ie) ed 1e).e) (61/6) le) Ol 4 savie! eh .@ 
© (6) 9) 6 w Oe ‘of @.6) oe ela) 6) @) 61 6 6. 8 Cale © @ 
CG Se 016, Cle ere oe 8 4) 010 a 0 6,60) 6 016 
ee) 
©) Ole! 610 ).0) wel 'e) 0 ale 6) 60 6. 4&8) 6 6 6 el ay e 
& be S156) 8) ae 6).8t ei w Nels 6) \0)'s! v) ole 8) a6. 6 
eee veer er ere eee secre resere 
@ [50 oe) 6).6)s 8) 0, ew © se 65.46 vywic ©: a0) 6 
re 
6) ele 6's 10 1 0 0 @ 9 6s) 8) a 9 e010) C6 Bie, 6 
Gere ce atececevev ere neve eeeves 
@Telh a! !.0) (6u\6 Lelie) 6) (0) '6 | @ aie, 018" .6 @ 6 ke 66) 6 6° 9 
4 .6.,a* 6) (6) 86, 0) e: ge a) 5) se) p)e\-6: 6 01 eee 616 
Ce ee) 


See. 20 8 '@ @ 0) 4 6) 4 0 « ele 4) 0) eo 4) 616 1416, 9. 


cece ere es eee eee reese eesese 


Students in 


Private 
Resident . Schools 
Students allied with 
the Institute 
Be U7 170 
Prat 153 163 
Ake 134 235 
ae 196 190 
tree 195 224 
Reid 168 134 
ee 145 99 
oak 121 103 
ARE 103 92 
A Vs 84 85 
mak 101 118 
hee 105 131 
Aste 91 151 
Fhe 91 208 
ABS 78 216 
site 32 25 
Steve 1,969 2,349 


Home Stu- 
dents not 
in Residence 
at any 
School 


er 


465 


Total 


419 
371 
422 
436 
441 
319 
259 
243 
214 
196 
253 
261 
270 
310 
312 

57 


4,793 


Number of diplomas granted from the establishment of the institute until its suppression, 


conferring bachelor’s degree, 315.1 
156th Cong, S. D. 363, p. 142. 


288 


Education in Porto Rico 


APPENDIX VI 


DIAGRAM OF ADMINISTRATION 
PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM OF PORTO RICO 


The People of 
Porto Rico Fresident of 
United States 


Governor of 
Porto Rico 


Commissioner 


Board of 
Trustees of 
the University 


of 
Education 


AssistantCommissioner University 
of of 
Education Porto Rico 


pxonicip Supervisors 6 
pf Education Home Economics 


=a 
Pupils 


Expenditures for Educational Purposes 


APPENDIX VII 


TABLE I 


289 


EXPENDITURES FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES YEAR ENDING, JUNE 
1889 TO 1920 


Popula- School Enroll- Insular 
tion of Popula- ment Revenues 
Year Porto tion 
Rico 

1899 953,243 322,393 29,172 ————— 
1900 964,746 325,002 24,392 1,831,094 
1901 976,841 328,194 38,000 2,074,894 
1902 988 ,007 332,497 61,869 2282, Lor 
1903 1,000,907 336,228 70,216 2,305,935 
1904 150127202 340,926 61,270 2,263,216 
1905 TO2Z3 eld 345,805 63,413 PA PAD) OA [Ps 
1906 1,035,429 SOU werd 68,828 2,554,554 
1907 1,047,699 354,721 72,052 3,538,241 
1908 1,060,477 360,551 80,167 3,371,541 
1909 105,126 3,180,111 
1910 1,118,012 390,640 121,453 3.451 ,267 
1911 145,525 3,986,746 
1912 160,657 4,369,164 
1913 161,785 4,382 544 
1914 207,010 4°753,9038 
1915 1,200,000 419,282 168,319 BR UPATO RS INK) 
1916 = - 151,562 4,133,15& 
1917 1.223.981 427 ,666 152,063 4,957,684 
1918 1,223,981 427 668 141,598 4,741,716 
1919 1,263,474 434,381 160,794 5,456,406 
1920 129 Tee 453 446 184,991 — 


Expendi- Expendi- | Expendi- 

tures for tures for tures for 

Education Education |Education 
by Insular | by School 

Government! Boards 

$288,098.00] $288,098.00; ——-——— 
377,111.00 294 048.00] $83,063.00 
530,662.00 418,125.00} 112,537.00 
(poor o-GU: 635,335.00) 118,210.00 
803,879.00 643 ,906.C0| 159,973.00 
873,603.00 691,020.00] 182,583.00 
878,868.00 674,510.00} 204,358.00 
905,929.00 659,658.00) 246,271.00 
918,516.00 660,657.00} 257,859.00 
1,093 311.00 750,537.00} 340,774.00 
1,427 ,451.00 989 965.00) 437,486.00 
1,371,490.00 952,329.00! 419,161.00 
1,394 ,380.00 990,689.00} 403,691.00 
1,518,779.00| 1,132,344.00) 386,435.00 
1,814,829.00| 1,235,485.00| 579,344.00 
2,698 263.00} 1,970,098.00| 728,165.00 
2,070,496.00] 1,477,816.00| 592;680.00 
1,840,016.00} 1,348,306.00} 491,710.00 
2 106,389.00} 1,518,322.00} 588,067.00 
2 325,802.00] 1,594,855.00) 730,947.00 
2 467,703.29] 1,788,271.79| 679,431.50 
3,150,761.25| 2,464,318.10| 686,443.15 


Education in Porto Rico 


290 


ae LRES8 880 Sa a ee 
a SG'SOT'SLT 9E°9E6 C1T'Ss¢'OL OO'OTS'FIE'T | FL'FOS'EIT OC GEC GOL a 00°90€'8ZT| 61°E06'220'% |GT6T 
00°00¢ — Cea t OO'LS9'SZE aia cee €9'°6F6 SOL Co"90E"SOT'T | 00°E96'80T OO'SLO StL. par — 00°LEF'9IT} 00°€0Z'S6E'T |ST6T 
00°008'€ io pes aa 00° SFS'SET = 00°00¢"69 00'E9S"OLT'T | 00°096'Z6 OO LLG LP Ts ase OO'ELE'SIT| OO'FOE'ELL'T |LIGT 
OO FIDL or ort 00'STE*OST = 00°Z89'9F OO TLE E86 00°802'68 DOCSOE TCL OO'FST'E6 | 0O'ZOS'9SE'T |9161 
OP Glee |) See 00'T9€'86I OO'LED LL 00°SG3' FOL OO'S6F'SLO'T | 00°ELS' FS 0O0'L8T'8L ; a 00°808°SZ | OO'ISF'GFS'T |SI6I 
00°Z9E'8 OO'8SF'ST 00° F6F 68z 00° OST FE 00°862' 631 OO'C9T'LFE'T | OO FFO'ED OO'SIT'Z6T OO SLE FF 00°9F0'2Z8 | 00°699'282'% | FIGI 
00° 6SF'8 O00°C6L'ST 00° 69F Sal 00°O82°LT OO'FIG'92 00°009'008 00°666'9F OO SLO: 266s te OO'SZL'GE | OO'OLF'ESF'T |ET6L 
00°L62'8 OO'SLFE'ST 00°618°SE 00°LEF'9S 00°068°99 00'¢¢0'8LZ 00°SLF' FF DO696 (Sl == 00°0S'TE | 00°E90'L9G'T |ZIG6I 
00'S1F'8 00°F39'9T 00'SFF'TS OO'FIL'FI 00°00F' ES OO'SFL'STL | 00'6FE'SF 00°000'SOT |———— | 00°9Z9°LZ | 00°L98'FEI'T |TT6I 
00°296'6 00° FES 0G 00°L00'F9 0O'SFL'SE 00°LE8' LF 00°CF6'SLY 00°EES' EF 00°0FL'06 oe 00'LE8'TZ | OO'F9T'SST'T |OTEL 
00°6€9'OT 00° FEO'0% 00° TOL 16 00°L82'00T 00°899'SF 00°0Z9' 249 O0O'STS'EF 00°F26°S6 == 09'FE8'TZ | OO'SEF'SES'T |606I 
0O'FSE' FI VO'TSF'S 00°F89' LOT$ 00°86L'Sh 0)°S90'TE 00°S0¢"80¢ 00°61 L'TL 00°L0¢'0Z aero 00°O¢E'9F | OO'O96'TEG | 806T 
00°009' FT 00 2 ete eee 00°9GL'9Z 00° L82°SE 00° LES FSF 00°928'°¢9 00°E82'61 00°SFS' 61 00°902'EF |. OO'TED'OSL {L061 
0O'SLL'F1 00°E61'S ae as oye a 00°¢96'¢¢ 00°Z06'SG 00°298'968 00°E¢9'89 00°00G'€% 00°961'9% 00°L26'CE | OO FEE'TEL |906T 
00° L6E°F1 00°626'6I I ss = oO 00°L96'8F 0O'TT6'TE 00°Z69'68E OO'T9T'OL 09°000'0% 00°SF9'SE 00°09¢'8E | OO'SZT'Z89 = | GO61 
0O'OLO' FI 00'8sz9'F $ | ———-—— 00°ZE8'0L 00°LLE'SE OO'OLE'LZ6E | O0'8ES'SL OO'SZF'ST |OO'ELS'SZ | OO'ELS™'EE | OO'SET'SOL =| FOG 
00°C98' FT 00°662'29 00°9€9'OF 00°G61'68E 00°SES'F9 00°EL6'E1 00°266'9T OO'L9E'FS | OO'ITZ6'699 = |S06T 
00°000'¢T$ as 00° 6FS'9ST 00°F FO'OF 00°LE806E 00°SEL'TS 00°969'0T ax = 00'ZS0'SL | OD'SFO'FND =| Z06T 
00°98" LT 00°€F8'OF 00°010'99% 00°890'TF 00°0¢8'F a es 00°008'TT$} OO'FFE'GLZE | LOGT 
ee ae = 00'FOS'F $ 00°661'ES 00° LOL'F0G 00°06'6Z <= wae ae = = LOO TCS LOE SINE 
ae 00°960'0¢$ 00'SEL'SOS$ | OO'SEF'ETS 00°268 $ ———— | 00°€0Z'¥Zz $ |6681 
$341 OOTY spleog JUIUIUIIAOL) sTOOYyos ‘dxo snooury OORT 

peyuyQ ut 04I0g UT yooyos Ag Iepnsuy Ag sotjddng AreyUIUIV]9 | -[aosTUI puL 0410g jo sjooyag sjooyos s[ooyos 

—————— SS == yooyss pure Ul SI9YOVI4 |yuouTyiedepjo} AyzIsIaAluy | [vliysnpuy ys AleyusWa[y j1v9 x 
ssuIpIng SYOOd-4X9T jo Saltv[eg |sasuedxe pjey 
sdtysie[oyos Jooyos Io}; papuodxy , pue aWO 


O0Z6I OL 6681 ANOL ONIGNG SUVAA SUSOdUNd IVNOILVONGH WOd SAANLIGNAdXaA GaUIWISSVTO 
Il WIaVve 


Expenditures for Educational Purposes 291 


TABLE III 


EXPENDITURES CLASSIFIED PER CAPITA COST, YEARS ENDING 
JUNE 1889 TO 1919 


Caeee Elementary Education per Pupil 
Books and | Total for Cost of Cost of 
Year © Supplies Education Total Instruc- | Buildings | Secondary | Education 
per Pupil | per Pupil Cost tion and | and Sites | Education| per Inhabi- 
Enrolled Mainten- per Pupil tant 
ance 
1899 $1.71 $ 9.88 $ 9.40 $ 9.40 a ——— $0.302 
1900 1.44 15.46 14.26 , 14.06 $ 0.20 ——— 91 
1901 1.07 13.61 12.45 11.98 AT aS .043 
1902 .65 12.18 - 11.34 8.59 2.65 —> .763 
1903 .08 11.45 10.28 9.24 1.04 ————— 797 
1904 533) 14.26 12.00 10.79 2a a .863 
1905 te 13.86 eS 2 10.70 82° oo - .850 
1906 colt, 13.16 11.90 10.99 91 ——————— .875 
1907 .00 PATS ibiore 5 11.06 41 <= 877 
1908 .39 13.64 12.58 10.51 2.07 SSS 1.031 
1909 41 13.58 eal 10.74 1.97 68.94 isd ees 
1910 .39 11.29 10.63 9.74 .89 42.11 Vi277 
1911 ltl 9.58 9.30 8.79 ail 45.97 e247 
1912 41 9.45 8.96 8.52 44 34.62 1.358 
1913 47 112 10.20 9.22 .98 25.62 1.623 
1914 .63 13.03 12.67 10.77 cet 10) 64.67 1.762 
1915 04 13.68 TAR 10.00 WAS) 45.31 1.725 
1916 .30 12.14 10.07 0.98 - 99 54.11 1.533: 
1917 215} 13.85 12.07 11.07 1.00 34.10 1.720 
1918 athe 15.39 14.16 11.81 2.35 34.80 1.930 
1919 .020 15% 13.40 11.43 1.97 37.02 1.940 
TABLE IV 


COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF FINANCIAL OPERATION OF 
SCHOOL BOARDS FOR THE YEARS OF WHICH DATE IS AVAILABLE 


Total income Indebtedness 

Year Balance on including Total from Former 
hand June 30 Balance Disbursements years 

1903-4 $ 8,831.93 See ne $51,368.65 
1904-5 25,396.27 $ 245,760.53 $220,364.26 27,342.14 
1905-6 43,878.24 304,963.94 260,815.70 9,215.27 
1906-7 88,592.75 346,451.79 257,859.04 1,911.75 
1907-8 116,438.16 504,481.26 388,043.10 = 
1908-9 127,213.59 564,699.57 437,485.98 inal 
1909-10 143,074.26 562,236.15 419,161.89 SSS 
1910-11 181,622.07 585,613.64 403,691.57 
1911-12 269,881.17 700,862.38 430,981.21 
1912-13 265,920.43 845,264.38 579,343.95 
1913-14 273,566.18 1,001,731.48 728,165.30 —_— 
1914-15 319,475.18 912,154.72 592,679.54 SSS 
1915-16 160,069.21 812,422.89 552,353.68 SS 
1916-17 554,742.40 1,211,018.45 656,276.05 
1917-18 367,028.98 1,205,103.55 838,074.57 
1918-19 320,236.09 1,075,159.91 (1) 754,923.82 ——— 


1Includes $75,492.32 retained by the treasurer of Porto Rico to pay installments of principal 
The total expenditures for the year are $679,431.50 


due on loans. 


292 Education in Porto Rico 


APPENDIX VIII 
ILLUSTRATIONS OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 


A RURAL SCHOOL AT THE TIME OF THE AMERICAN OCCUPATION 


Pry 


Illustrations of School Buildings 


A TYPICAL RURAL SCHOOL AT THE TIME OF THE AMERICAN 
OCCUPATION. PoRTO RICO. 


293 


294 Education in Porto Rico 


Wooprow WILSON CONSOLIDATED RURAL SCHOOL, AGUIRRE. SALINAS. 
The new type of rural schools now being introduced. 


Dr. J. C. BARBOSA CONSOLIDATED RURAL SCHOOL, VIEQUES, P. R. 


ng 


; 


ld 


f School Bui 


Illustrations o 


LONGFELLOW GRADED SCHOOL, SAN GERMAN, P. R. 
Built by the Department of Education of Porto Rico, Completed October 19, 1901. 
The type of school buildings for urban schools first built after the American occupation. 


296 Education in Porto Rico 


PONCE DE LEON GRADED SCHOOL, HuMACAO, P. R. 
Old four-room tvpe remodeled and enlarged 


RAEEAL M. LABRA GRADED SCHOOL, SANTURCE, P. R. 


t 
Ne) 
~) 


Illustration: 


of School Balding: 


RoMAN BALDORIOTY DE CASTRO GRADED AND 
SAN JUAN, P. R. 


MAYAGUEz HicH ScHooL, MAYAGUEzZ, P. R. 


298 Education in Porto Rico 


APPENDIX IX 


COMPARATIVE STUDY OF EDUCATIONAL CONDITIONS IN 
1898-1899 AND 1918-1919 ; 


1898-1899 1918-1919 
Number | Attend-| Barrios | Number] Enroll- | Barrios | In- ine 
of ance Without] ofTeach-| ment | Without] crease crease 
Teach- Schools ers? Schools in in 
ers Teachers| Pupils 

Adjuntaseao-7 ae 6 130 12 41 2,351 0 35 2221 
Aguadaie- oye: 7 232 14 25 1,568 il 18 1,336 
Aguadilla........ 8 542 13 57 3,237 0 49 2,695 
Aguas Buenas..... i) 175 6 19 1,090 1 14 915 
Aibonitocoeen eee 6 222 5 27 1,464 0 21 1,242 
Atlas0ouce et oe: 7 315 19 38 2,102 2 31 1,787 
Arécibos ou: ceo ee os i 683 = 108 5,457 0 97 4,774 
Arcovasneee eines 3 201 6 22 1,070 0 19 869 
Barceloneta ...... 6 230 a5 25 1322 @) 19 1,092 
Barranquitas...... 3 143 5 24 1,299 0) 20 1,156 
Barres cae eee 5 181 13 51 3,504 0 46 3,323 
Bayam6n.ic. 25s 10 468 15 TKS 3,474 0 67 3,006 
Cabo Rojo....... 7 325 3 51 2,617 0 44 2,292 
Caguas va... eee 9 417 5 81 4,162 ) 72 3,745 
Carouyeas eee 5 206 9 34 1,795 1 29 1°589 
Carolina... a... 6 218 9 41 2,637 0 35 2,419 
Cavevad: . tray ke 8 573 16 45 1,951 3 37 1,378 
Ceiba included in! 
Bajardoumscet aaa ass if 15 675 0 15 675 
CGiales =. eataae. jer 7 245 =a 40 2,411 0 33 2,166 
Cidra 85 ste ee 5 184 9 a7 1,133 1 22 949 
Codimorceeue. ao 9 484 3 49 2,847 0 40 2,363 
Comeério 2. grace 7 331 = 29 1,621 ) 22 1,290 
Corozals> Meea.sae 5 211 8 29 1,643 0 24 1,432 
Dorado. .:s.s.:-4 4 119 4 18 858 0 14 739 
Pajardoauem 13 597 12 49 1,863 0 36 1,266 
Guainabo! 

Included in : 

Bayamon ea. .4-r re — ae 24 1,078 0) 24 1,078 
Guanica included’ 

holy VANE OOM oo oc — — = 26 15203 0) 26 1,203 
Guayama..* i060. 9 391 5 57 2,593 0 48 2,202 
Guayanilla.: a. ote 5 57 12 34 1,637 0 29 1,480 
Gurabor Leases 5 258 6 25 1,482 0) 20 1,224 
Hatillo..“ ae 6 191 3 26 1,539 0 20 1,348 
Hormigueros...... 4 68 3 14 582 0) 10 514 
Humacao......... 11 All 2 55 a lg 0 44 2,306 
Teabelar.ci. oe er 8 225 a 38 2,151 0 30 1,926 
Jayuya included! 

how UMASS), ha ac = — — 25 1,587 6) 25 1,587 
Juana Diaz....... 13 475 12 45 2,289 4 32 1,814 
Juricoes 2a wea he 6 215 5 31 1,707 0 25 1,492 
(aja eee 6 99 6 33 1,692 0 a7, 1,520 
Lares te eee 10 253 4 51 3,236 if 41 2,983 
Las Marias....... 8 125 6 30 1,645 0 29 1,520 
Vas Piedras ios.hi- SU ie e105 6 20 1,088 ) 17 938 


Comparative Study of Educational Conditions 299 


APPENDIX TX CONTINUED 


WeOIZar oe ee fe 219 4 36 1,880 (9) 29 1,661 
Luquillo included . 

in Fajardo’..... — — — 15 883 Q 15 883 
Manat. aie ut wee 8 408 3 42 2,312 0) 34 1,904 
Maricao meni ae 4 119 4 27 1,432 0 ee 1,313 
Maunadbo renee = 150 — 19 918 0 15 768 
Mayagtiez........ 33 1178 4 102 4,740 0 69 3,562 
WL OCA Ione rue 6 146 7 44 1,631 0 18 1,485 
IMGLOVISHE ee eee 7 259 9 28 1,612 0) Dall iL. Biss! 
Nialeua born. seine 5 212 6 33 1,591 0 28 1,319 
INaraniitoe os. ae. 5 152 4 20 1,141 ) 15 989 
LRA UNC, 6 bio ns 5 6 Zoe 2) 30 1,401 (8) 24 1,169 
Penuelase ae. 405% 8 263 8 32 1,485 C 24 1,222 
Ponce + bers eee 38 1748 — 192 9,554 0 154 7,806 
Quebradillas...... 4 274 5 il 1,292 0) 23 1,018 
IREECOM Gon Abou babe 3 74 5 We 978 O ie 904 
Rio Grande....... 7 356 Z 34 1,863 1 D7 1,507 
Rio Piedras....:.. 5 294 8 50 2,897 0 45 2,603 
Sabana Grande i) 210 4 32 iL aul 1 ii 1,207 
Salina Sew erie 3 118 5 32 1,665 (6) 29 1,547 
San German...... 12 590 10 60 3,334 0 48 2,744 
Sarin ater eters 15 as — 174 8,030 (0) 159 6,917 
San Lorenzon asso: 5 230 7 32 1,856 0) 27 1,626 
San Sebastian..... 8 326 19 39 2,518 2 31 2,192 
Santa Isabel)... - 6 228 4 ae 898 9) 15 670 
‘MoawA lta awe e 4 167 5 24 1,335 (0) 20 1,168 
ANGYEY BEEN. 6. gle cee 4 184 2 24 1,119 8) 20 935 
EErajtlloeaAltonar 4 103 4 19 1,006 (8) 15 903 
WWARUIEKEKOL. 6b obo 60 ee 9 262 — 68 4,306 0 59 4,044 
Wega Alta fsa. i) 192 4 21 1,049 9) 16 857 
Vegacbajac. one 8 303 9 35 2,011 0 27 1,708 
WAGES Sa entlae 6 166 5 25 1,226 0 19 1,060 
Villalba included 

in Juana Diaz’ ae —_ — 24 1,195 2 24 1,195 
Via U CORREA Loire 7 450 5 48 2,485 0 4l 2,035 
Wat COntete cr aeicee ke 15 672 —— 70 3,608 6) 55 2,926 
Culebran secre —— — — 3 1438 (8) 3 143 
Ota eae etteeets: 525 21,873 426 3,035 159,125 20 2,510 A252 


1Not a separate municipality in 1898-1899. Reported as barrio of town written opposite. 
"Included 83 night school teachers. 


300 Education in Porto Rico 


APPENDIX X 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 
PRIMARY SOURCES 


I. SpanisH DocUMENTS 


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Anuario Legislativo de Instruccién Ptblica. Being a compilation of all Royal 
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Ley de Instruccién Publica. Sancionada por S. M. en 9 de Setiembre de 1859. 
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The Course of Study in Arithmetic for the Graded Schools of Porto Rico. Bureau 
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302 Education in Porto Rico 


The Course of Study in Drawing for the Graded Schools of Porto Rico. Pre- 
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IV. Porto Rico: OrHEeR PuBLicaTIONs GIVING INFORMATION ON EDUCATION 
A. DvurinGc THE SPANISH REGIME 


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304 Education in Porto Rico 


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B. During tHE AMERICAN REGIME 


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